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THE 
/NIAGARA  IALLS 

ELECTRICAL 
MAAID 
BOOK 


MEMORANDUM. 


This  electrical  handbook  is  one  of  a  series 
of  ten  similar  handbooks  prepared  under  the  axis- 
pices  of  the  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ELECTRICAL 
ENGINEERS  by  the  local  Reception  Committees  in  the 
Cities  of  Boston,  New  York,  Schenectady,  Montreal. 
Niagara  Falls,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Pittsburg,  Wash- 
ington, and  Philadelphia.  These  are  the  stopping 
places  on  the  circular  tour  organized  by  the  INSTITUTE 
for  the  reception  and  entertainment  of  its  foreign  guests 
who  visit  the  LTnited  States  in  connection  with  the 
International  Electrical  Congress  at  St.  Louis,  Septem- 
ber 12th  to  17th.  1904.  It  is  hoped  in  these  hand- 
books to  present  short  historical  sketches  of  the  cities 
visited  and  a  rapid  survey  of  the  power  plants  and 
important  electrical  industries  along  the  route. 

Niagara  Falls.  No.      316 


LOCAL  RECEPTION  COMMITTEE 

BOSTON    MASS. 


THE  NIAGARA  FALLS 
ELECTRICAL  HANDBOOK 


of 


THE 

NIAGARA  FALLS 

ELECTRICAL 
HANDBOOK 


Being  a  Guide  for  Visitors  from  Abroad 
Attending  the  International  Electri- 
cal Congress,  St.   Louis,   Mo. 
September,   1904 


falls 


The  American  Institute  of 

Electrical  Engineers 

1904 


siH 


Copyright  1904  by 

George  \V.  Davenport 

Niagara  Falls.  X.  Y. 


THE    MASON    PRESS 
Syracuse      New  York 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

PAGE 

Niagara    I 

PART  II 
AMERICAN  NIAGARA  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  BY  CANAL 

The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and  Manufac- 
turing  Company 37 

Tenants  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and 
Manufacturing  Company — 

Niagara  Falls  Brewing  Company 48 

The  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper  Company 49 

Cliff   Paper   Company 50 

Wm.  A.  Rogers,  Limited 52 

The  Niagara  Gorge  Railroad  Company   54 

The  National  Electrolytic  Company 61 

Acker  Process  Company 62 

PART  III 
AMERICAN  NIAGARA  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  BY  TUNNEL. 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 71 

Local  Tenants  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 

The  Carborundum  Company 91 

Union  Carbide  Company 94 

Niagara  Electro-Chemical  Company 99 

Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls  Electric  Light  and 

Power  Company 98 

The  Niagara  Falls  Water  Works  Company.  . .  .    ico 
International  Paper  Company 102 


PACK 

Electrical  Lead  Reduction  Company 114 

Castner  Electrolytic  Alkali  Company 116 

International  Acheson  Graphite  Company 117 

Roberts  Chemical  Company 123 

Francis  Hook  and  Eye  and  Fastener  Company.  124 

Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company 126 

The  Natural  Food  Company is(} 

Ramapo  Iron  Works 136 

The  Composite  Board  Company 137 

Niagara  Research  Laboratories 138 

Canadian  Tenants  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany    143 

Long-distance  Tenants  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company — 

The  Cataract  Power  and  Conduit  Company.  . .  .    145 

International  Railway  Company 150 

Tonawanda  Power  Company 1 58 

Lockport  Gas  and  Electric  Light  Company.  ..  .    159 

PART  IV 
NIAGARA   POWER  DEVELOPMENT  ix   CANADA 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company 163 

The  Electrical  Development  Company  of  Ontario. 
Ltd..  and  the  Toronto  and  Niagara  Power  Com- 
pany    168 

The  Ontario  Power  Company 184 

PART  V 
From  Niagara  to  Chicago 20I 


PART  I 
NIA GAR  A 


The  American  Falls 


Niagara 


HE  Niagara  Region,  by  which 
title  the  inland  -  stretching 
banks  of  our  river,  from  Erie 
to  Ontario,  are  known  to  man, 
touches  the  history  of  many 
persons,  of  many  inventions, 
and  of  many  branches  of  uni- 
versal knowledge,  at  many 
points. 

In  the  records  of  the  Amer- 
ican Indian,  of  France,  of 
Great  Britain,  of  Canada,  and 
of  the  United  States, 

"  Its  name  is  on  their  pages, 
And  you  cannot  blot  it  out." 

Its  narrative  is  "history,"  in  the  broadest  and  best 
sense;  for  it  tells,  not  only  of  "wars  and  rumors  of  wars," 
but  also  of  the  religions,  of  the  civilization,  of  the  arts  of 
peace,  and  of  the  progress  of  many  peoples. 

It  dates  back,  in  Indian  tradition,  to  the  remotest 
past;  and  in  Indian  story,  for  years  before  a  white  man 
trod  its  soil. 

Its  name  is  writ  large  in  the  Indian  Missions  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  the  service  of  her  priests 
under  the  flag  bearing  the  lilies  of  France. 

It  has  acknowledged,  on  its  eastern  shore,  the  sov- 
ereignty, in  turn,  of  three  of  the  great  nations  of  the 
modern  world;  and  on  its  western  shore,  of  two  of  them. 

It  has  seen  battles,  some  of  undying  fame,  and  deci- 
sive of  the  ownership  of  vast  areas,  perhaps  of  the  conti- 
nent, fought  within  its  limits. 

Many  times  and  long  has  diplomacy  exerted  all  of  its 
arts  and  of  its  abilities  for  its  acquisition. 


The    Niagara    Falls 


It  has  played  a  not  unimportant  part  in  the  westward 
extension  of  civilization  and  of  settlement. 

Its  name  is  linked  with  that  of  commerce,  both  on 
land  and  water. 

It  is  associated  with  the  sciences,  in  several  paths. 
It  is  prominent,  through  its  reproductions,  in  the  illus- 
trative; and  through  its  achievements,  in  the  mechanical 
arts. 

Its  scenic  grandeur,  and  the  actions  of  two  sovereign 
commonwealths,  in  preserving  the  surroundings  of  its 
main  glory  for  all  time  for  the  free  use  of  all  mankind, 
are  known  of  all  men. 

And,  in  the  literature  of  the  world,  and  in  many 
tongues,  it  holds  a  by  no  means  inconspicuous  place. 

Indian  tradition  tells  that  the  aborigines  were  wont  to 
gaze  in  awe  upon  the  spray  of  the  Falls,  as  being  the 
abode  of  the  Great  Spirit  of  Niagara,  whom  the  tribes, 
from  far  and  near,  worshiped ;  and  to  whom  they  offered 
as  sacrifices,  by  casting  into  the  waters,  weapons  of  the 
braves,  for  success  in  war  and  in  the  chase ;  and  fruits  of 
the  earth,  for  the  abundance  of  the  crops.  In  still  higher 
homage,  in  propitiation  of  His  favor  to  their  race,  they 
annually  sacrificed  the  fairest  maiden  of  the  nation, 
chosen  by  lot ;  sending  her  over  the  Falls  in  a  white  canoe 

bedecked  with 
fruits  and  flow- 
ers. After  death 
the  chiefs  were 
laid  to  rest  on 
Goat  Island, 
which  "none 
but  brave  men 
e'er  could 
reach,"  and 
which  has  been 
called  the ''most 
interesting  spot 
in  all  Amer- 
ica." In  later 

Hennepin's  View  of  the  Falls  days  the  Neuter 


Electrical    Handbook  5 

Nation  held  sway  over  this  region,  until  obliterated,  about 
1651,  by  the  savage  Senecas,  who  remained  "lords  of  the 
soil,"  even  under  French  occupation,  until  compelled 
to  cede  it  to  Britain,  in  1764,  as  payment  for  past  hos- 
tilities. 

Priests  of  the  Catholic  Church,  who  daily  risked  their 
lives  as  they  carried  the  Gospel  to  the  Indian  tribes  in  an 
unknown  wilderness,  were  here  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  In  1626,  Father  Daillon  crossed  its  stream,  "the 
great  river  of  the  Neutrals;"  and  others,  between  that 
date  and  1679,  when  Hennepin  and  his  Brother  Recollets, 
who  accompanied  the  explorer  La  Salle,  stood  upon  its 
banks.  It  is  to  Father  Hennepin  that  the  world  owes  the 
earliest  description  of  the  Falls,  and  the  first  picture 
thereof.  While  Champlain,  who  never  saw  them,  made 
the  first  reference  to  them  in  literature,  just  three  cent- 
uries ago,  and  Father  Ragueneau,  in  1648,  wrote  of  this 
"cataract  of  fearful  height,"  it  is  Hennepin's  "great  and 
prodigious  cadence  of  waters,  which  falls  down  after  a 
surprising  and  astonishing  manner,  insomuch  that  the 
universe  does  not  afford  its  parallel,"  that  remains  even 
until  to-day  as  the  quaintest  and  best  known  of  all  de- 
scriptions thereof. 

Wars  have  raged  and  bloody  battles  have  been  fought 
upon  its  soil ;  the  earliest  of  record,  when  the  Senecas 
suddenly  fell  upon  the  inhabitants  of  a  Neuter  village  and 
annihilated  them.  In  after  years  their  winter's  siege  of 
Fort  De  Nonville  almost  annihilated  the  garrison,  and 
later  compelled  its  demolition,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French. 

In  1759,  the  thrice-projected  British  attack  on  Fort 
Niagara  took  form,  and  an  army  laid  siege  to  it.  A  few 
days  of  cannonading,  with  the  advantage  all  on  the  side 
of  the  besiegers,  and  the  relieving  force,  consisting  of  all 
the  Frenchmen  and  Indians  that  could  be  hastily  gath- 
ered in  the  West,  reached  it.  Sir  William  Johnson,  with 
his  forces  in  battle  array,  met  and  routed  them.  The 
fort  surrendered  and  Britain's  long  dream  of  its  posses- 
sion was  at  last  fulfilled.  Four  years  later,  Pontiac's 
Great  Conspiracy  touched  this  frontier,  in  the  Devil's 


6  The    Niagara    Falls 

Hole  Massacre;  where  the  Senecas,  still  friendly  to 
France,  ambushed  first  a  British  supply  train,  and  then 
the  force  that  hurried  to  its  assistance;  nearly  one  hun- 
dred scalped  corpses  testifying  to  the  precision  of  their 
plan  and  to  the  exactness  of  its  execution. 

The  control  of  the  Niagara  Region  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  diplomats  of  both  France  and  Britain  for 
many  years;  from  1680  to  1725,  its  acquisition  was  one  of 
the  main  features  of  the  policies  of  those  governments. 
FYance  secured  it,  but  Britain  promptly  compassed  her 
withdrawal.  Years  afterwards  France  again  acquired  it, 
and  held  it,  in  spite  of  all  her  rival's  threats  and  wiles. 
Then  began  the  plannings ;  on  one  side  to  hold  it,  on  the 
other  to  oust  its  possessor.  When  diplomacy  and  in- 
trigue had  failed,  arms  were  resorted  to ;  and  then  Brit- 
ain won.  Her  diplomacy  failed  again  in  dealing  with 
her  American  Colonies.  To  arms  again ;  but  this  time 
Britain  lost.  The  Revolution  robbed  her  of  all  her 
American  possessions,  save  what  she  had  torn  from 
France;  and  even  of  one-half  of  what  she  had  thus 
gained  along  this  river.  Even  then  Britain's  diplomacy 
did  not  despair.  For  thirteen  years,  1783  to  1796,  known 
in  history  as  the  "Hold  Over  Period,"  she  held  five  of 
our  forts,  Niagara  the  most  important.  Only  on  her 
evacuation  of  that  fort  was  the  tangible  hope  of  some 
day  reconquering  her  rebellious  Colonies  dismissed.  In- 
deed, not  until  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  was  it  really 
abandoned. 

The  region  has  played  its  part,  and  an  important  one, 
in  the  extension  of  civilization  and  in  the  settlement  of 
the  West.  It  was  the  great  highway  between  the  At- 
lantic seaboard  and  the  Mississippi.  By  its  famous  port- 
age lay  the  westward  route  for  all.  Under  French  rule 
it  was  secure ;  her  soldiers  were  there,  and  Frenchmen 
were  on  terms  of  amity  with  the  Western  Indian  tribes. 
Under  Great  Britain  it  was  also  the  favored  route.  But 
it  lay  in  the  Senecas'  country,  and  they  were  hostile  at 
heart.  So  it  was  fortified.  There  was  a  fort  at  its  lower 
end ;  between  that  and  the  river  above  the  Falls,  a  dis- 
tance of  seven  miles,  were  eleven  block  houses,  garri- 


Electrical    Handbook 


8  The   Niagara   Falls 

soned  and  cannoned ;  at  its  upper  end  was  Fort  Schlosser. 
It  was  the  best  protected  highway  in  all  America.  Over 
it  passed  an  enormous  traffic,  the  trade  of  half  a  conti- 
nent ;  consisting  of  boats  for  the  soldiers  and  trappers  on 
their  way  to  and  from  Detroit  and  even  points  beyond, 
ammunition  and  stores  of  every  description  for  the  west- 
ern posts,  and  loads  of  cheap  merchandise,  to  be  ex- 
changed by  the  traders  for  valuable  furs.  With  these 
cargoes  went  the  different  classes  of  men,  who  thus 
taught  the  savages  the  ways  of  their  white  brethren. 

Eastward,  over  the  portage,  came  a  steady  stream  of 
peltries,  gathered  over  a  boundless  territory,  en  route 
from  Detroit,  the  western  metropolis  of  the  fur  trade,  to 
New  York.  Had  there  been  no  Niagara  Portage — it  was 
secure  and  it  was  easy,  for  by  it  there  was  an  otherwise 
unbroken  water  trip  between  Oswego  and  the  western 
end  of  Lake  Superior — the  history  of  the  fur  trade,  and 
of  its  semi-settlement  of  the  West,  would  have  told  of 
greater  hardships  and  of  slower  growth. 

Its  name  is  linked  with  the  commerce  of  the  conti- 
nent. Niagara,  in  all  its  summer  beauty,  lies  spread  out 
before  our  eyes.  One  beholds  it  all,  and  is  thankful. 
Each  time  that  one  views  it  some  new  attribute  appears. 
It  is,  in  very  truth,  "The  emblem  of  God's  majesty  on 
earth."  Many  gifted  men  and  women  have  tried  to  re- 
cord their  impressions  of  it.  Has  any  one  of  them  ever 
been  successful  ?  One  of  the  best,  probably  the  shortest, 
possibly  the  most  eloquent,  certainly  the  most  non- 
descriptive,  was  that  by  Fanny  Kemble,  who  merely 
wrote:  "I  lifted  up  mine  eyes,  and  beheld  Niagara — Oh, 
God!  Who  can  describe  that  sight?" 

On  account  of  its  scenery  this  region  has  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  general  literature  of  the  world. 
It  touches  it  at  many  points.  In  poetry,  Niagara  is  not 
unnamed.  In  prose,  and  in  many  tongues,  in  works  de- 
scriptive, scientific,  reminiscent  (especially  of  travel),  it 
is  a  component  element ;  even  in  fiction  it  is  not  neglected. 
A  bibliography  of  Niagara  is  neither  uninteresting  nor 
uninstructive ;  neither  is  it  short. 

The   modern  history  of  the  Niagara   Region  began 


Electrical   Handbook  p 

with  the  primitive  Red  Man.  It  ends  to-day  with  the 
progressive  descendant  of  the  colonist.  At  the  borders 
of  the  cataract,  as  almost  everywhere,  the  civilization 
and  progress  of  the  latter  have  swept  away  every  vestige 
of  aboriginal  occupation.  For  the  heel  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  is  on  the  grave  of  the  Indian,  and  on  his  dwelling 
—by  "The  Thunder  of  the  Waters." 

THE  NAME  NIAGARA 

The  word  Niagara  is  a  household  word  the  world 
over,  and  is  the  synonym  for  the  typical  waterfall.  It  is 
of  Indian  origin.  Over  fifty  variations  of  the  name  are 
known,  though  for  over  200  years  the  present  spelling  has 
been  general,  and  for  the  past  150  years  in  almost  uni- 
versal use.  Older  forms  found  in  books  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  are:  Onguiaarha,  Ongiara,  Ochniagara, 
lagara,  and  Niah-gah-ra,  the  latter  accented  sometimes 
on  the  second  syllable.  In  the  more  modern  Indian  dialect 
the  sound  of  every  vowel  being  always  given  in  full, 
Ni-ah-gah-rah  seems  to  have  been  the  accepted  pronun- 
ciation, and  is  no  doubt  the  really  correct  accentuation. 
The  modern  word  Ni-ag-a-ra,  accented  on  the  second 
syllable,  is  the  now  invariably-used  form  of  the  word; 
but  it  is  of  more  recent  origin  and  devoid  of  the  beauti- 
ful flowing  articulation  of  the  Indian  tongue. 

As  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  there  is  great  doubt. 
The  commonly  accepted  interpretation,  "The  Thunderer 
of  the  Waters,"  is  the  most  poetic. 

Niagara  appears  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  tribe, 
given  by  Drake  as  "Nicaragas,"  with  the  added  note, 
"once  about  Machilimakinak,  joined  the  Iroquois  about 
1723."  This  statement  would  seem  to  show  that  these 
Nicaragas  were  a  portion  of  the  Neuters  (who  were  con- 
quered by  the  Senecas  in  1651)  ;  this  remnant  then  escap- 
ing to  the  Northwest,  and  that  seventy  years  later  their 
descendants  returned  and  joined  the  Iroquois,  among 
whom  the  other  survivors  of  the  Neuters  had  previously 
been  absorbed. 

It  was  the  Indian  custom  to  name  their  tribes  and  the 
smaller  subdivisions  thereof  from  the  most  important 


The    Niagara    Falls 


Electrical    Handbook  n 

natural  feature  of  the  country  they  inhabited,  or  to  give 
their  natal  name  to  such  feature.  So  the  deduction  is 
that  the  subdivision  of  the  Neuters  who  dwelt  along  the 
Niagara  River  took  their  name  from  it  and  its  famed 
cataract.  Certainly,  these  were  the  chief  natural  features 
of  the  territory,  and  their  principal  village,  situated  just 
below  the  end  of  the  lower  rapids,  and  under  Lewiston 
heights,  bore  the  same  name,  for  it  was  called  Onguia- 
ahra.  The  Neuters  are  referred  to  by  Father  L'Allement 
in  the  "Jesuit  Relation"  of  1641,  published  in  1642,  as 
"the  Neuter  Nation,  Onguiaahra,  having  the  same  name 
as  the  river." 

THE  NIAGARA  RIVER 

The  Niagara,  one  of  the  world's  shortest,  but  also  one 
of  its  most  famous,  rivers  is  thirty-six  miles  long,  twenty- 
two-miles  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Falls,  and  fourteen 
miles  from  the  Falls  to  Lake  Ontario. 

Its  sources  are  the  basins  of  the  four  great  upper  lakes, 
whose  watershed  is  over  150,000  square  miles.  The  size 
and  depth  of  these  lakes  are : 

Superior. .  .365  miles  long,  160  miles  wide,  1,030  feet  deep 
Huron   ....200      "        "      100     "        "       1,000    " 
Michigan  ..320      "         "        70      "         "       1,000     "       " 
Erie    290  65      '  84     " 

The  deepest  channel  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Falls, 
along  the  centre  of  which  runs  the  boundary  line  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada — as  determined  under  the 
treaty  of  Ghent,  which  ended  the  war  of  1812 — lies  to  the 
west  of  Grand  Island  and  to  the  east  and  south  of  Navy 
Island,  with  an  average  depth  of  twenty  feet  of  water. 
Below  the  Falls,  and  extending  down  to  near  the  canti- 
lever bridge,  the  depth  is  200  feet,  as  determined  by 
United  States  Government  surveys.  Under  the  railroad 
bridges  the  depth  is  only  about  ninety  feet.  In  the 
Whirlpool  Rapids,  as  calculated,  it  is  only  forty  feet. 
The  depth  of  the  Whirlpool  is  estimated  at  400  feet. 
From  there  to  Lewiston,  it  is  estimated  at  sixty  feet  in 
places;  and  from  Lewiston  to  Lake  Ontario  at  over  100 
feet. 


12  The    Niagara    Falls 

It  is  a  little  less  than  one-half  of  a  mile  wide  at  its 
source,  one  mile  just  above  the  Falls,  one-eighth  of  a 
mile  above  and  at  the  outlet  of  the  Whirlpool,  and  only 
about  one-sixteenth  at  its  narrowest  point,  at  Foster's 
Flats  in  the  Gorge. 

From  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario  to  the  ocean,  the 
river  is  called  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  which  name  one  hun- 
dred years  ago,  was  commonly  given  to  what  we  now  call 
the  Niagara  River. 

The  descent  of  the  Niagara  River,  from  lake  to  lake, 
is  336  feet,  of  which  216  feet  is  in  the  rapids  above  the 
Falls  and  in  the  Falls  themselves,  distributed  as  follows: 

From  Lake  Erie  to  the  beginning  of  the  rapids,  Feet 

(21  1/2  miles,)  the  descent  is  ......................      15 

In  the  half  mile  of  rapids  above  the  Falls  ...........     55 

In  the  Falls  ......................................   161 

From  the  Falls  to  Lewiston  (7  miles)  ..............     98 

From  Lewiston  to  Lake  Ontario  (7  miles)  ..........       7 


Below  the  Falls  there  is  said  to  be  an  undercurrent  of 
far  greater  strength  and  velocity  than  the  surface  current, 
and  to  this  is  attributed  the  fact  that  bodies  going  over 
the  Horseshoe  Fall  are  not  usually  seen  until  they  reach 
the  Whirlpool. 

The  river  is  one  of  comparatively  changeless  volume. 
When  for  brief  periods  the  water  is  high  a  rise  of  one 
foot  in  the  river  above  the  Falls  means  a  rise  of  sixteen 
feet  directly  below  —  caused  by  the  abrupt  turn  of  the 
river's  channel  at  the  Falls  and  the  reduced  width  from 
about  a  mile  at  the  beginning  of  the  rapids  above  to  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  at  the  base  of  the  Horseshoe  or  Cana- 
dian Fall. 

THE  FALLS 

Although  there  are  waterfalls  that  are  higher,  Niag- 
ara, the  ideal  waterfall,  is  the  greatest  in  the  amount  of 
water  that  pours  over  its  brink  as  well  as  in  the  impres- 
sion of  immensity  it  creates.  Niagara  is  deceptive  in  its 
height.  Viewed  from  above,  either  on  the  American  or 


Electrical   Handbook  13 

Canadian  shore,  or  on  Goat  Island,  one  does  not  appre- 
ciate its  altitude;  but  from  below,  at  any  point  near  the 
falling  sheet,  one  begins  to  comprehend  its  immensity. 

The  approach  to  most  falls  is  from  below,  and  we  get 
an  idea  of  them  as  of  rivers  pitching  down  to  the  plains 
from  the  brow  of  a  hill  or  mountain ;  but  at  Niagara  the 
first  view  is  always  from  the  level  of  the  upper  river,  or 
from  a  point  above  the  Falls.  The  Falls  are  in  latitude 
43°  6'  west,  longitude  2°  5'  west  from  Washington ;  or 
longitude  79°  5'  west  from  Greenwich. 


Goat  Island  Bridge 

The  Height  of  the  Canadian  Fall,  over  which  flows 
about  seven-eighths  of  the  entire  volume  of  water,  is  159 
feet. 

The  height  of  the  American  Fall  is  165  feet,  or  about 
six  feet  greater  than  that  of  the  Horseshoe  Fall,  the  dif- 
ference in  levels  being  caused  by  the  greater  declivity  in 
the  bed  of  the  river  in  the  Canadian  channel. 

The  Canadian  Fall  is  about  3.000  feet  in  width  along 
the  brink;  the  American  Fall  about  1,100  feet;  and  the 
Goat  Island  cliff  along  the  gorge  is  about  1,200  feet  in 
length. 


1 4  The    Niagara    Falls 

The  estimated  volume  of  the  Falls  in  horse  power  is 
about  3,000,000;  in  tons,  5,000,000  per  hour,  or  about  one 
cubic  mile  of  water  per  week. 

The  top  of  the  column  of  spray  that  is  ever  rising 
from  the  gorge  can  be  seen  on  a  clear  day  for  a  great  dis- 
tance, while  the  roar  of  the  Falls,  it  has  been  claimed, 
has  been  heard  for  many  miles,  doubtless  when  the  sec- 
tion was  a  comparatively  unbroken  wilderness. 

In  connection  with  the  roar  of  the  Falls,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  relate  that,  in  1897,  a  huge  telephone  transmit- 
ter was  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  Cave  of  the  Winds 
(the  other  end  of  the  American  Fall  was  tried,  but  the 
results  obtained  were  not  as  satisfactory),  and  each 
evening,  between  7  and  10  o'clock,  for  a  period  of  a 
month,  the  wire  connecting  this  receiver  with  the  local 
telephone  office  was  put  in  direct  connection,  over  the 
wires  of  the  Telephone  Company,  with  New  York  city, 
and  hundreds  of  people  listened  to  the  roar  of  Niagara, 
450  miles  away ;  and  at  the  same  time  power  was  nightly 
transmitted  from  the  Niagara  Power  House  over  an  or- 
dinary telegraph  wire  to  the  same  room  in  New  York 
city,  and  there  illuminated  electric  lamps  and  furnished 
current  (less  than  half  a  horse  power)  to  operate  a  min- 
iature model  of  the  power  house  itself  and  of  the  adja- 
cent territory. 

The  apex  of  the  Horseshoe  Fall,  which  is  the  point  of 
the  cataract's  greatest  erosion,  has  within  the  memory  of 
men  now  living,  receded  much  more  than  100  feet. 

Hennepin  speaks  of,  and  his  picture  of  Niagara  (the 
first  one  known),  published  in  1607,  shows  a  third  fall, 
at  Table  Rock.,  It  seems  to  be  true,  as  gathered  from 
records,  that  at  that  time  a  large  rock,  situated  near  the 
western  edge  of  the  Canadian  Fall,  created  a  third  fall  as 
the  water  coursed  around  it ;  but  this  rock  has  long  since 
disappeared,  disintegrated  by  the  elements  and  its  frag- 
ments washed  away  by  the  stream. 

THE  FALLS  FIRST  SEEN  BY  WHITE  MEN 
It  would  be  most  interesting  if  we  could  know  the 
name  and  nationality  of  the  first  white  man  who  ever 


Electrical   Handbook  75 

gazed  upon  Niagara  and  the  exact  date  of  his  visit.  Ac- 
cording to  a  legend,  the  first  white  man  to  behold  the 
Falls  was  a  French  priest,  who  was  led  one  moonlight 
night  by  an  Indian  chief  to  Table  Rock.  When  the  chief 
pointed  to  Goat  Island  and  said  it  was  the  abode  of  the 
Great  Spirit  and  that  no  one  except  warriors  could  reach 
it  alive,  the  priest  denounced  the  statement  as  false.  The 
chief  offered  to  test  this  priest's  belief  by  taking  him  at 
once  to  the  island,  and  the  priest  agreed.  The  chief  led 
him  up-stream  to  a  point  above  the  head  of  the  rapids, 
where  they  embarked  in  a  canoe  and  soon  reached  the 
island,  on  which  the  priest  stepped,  and  after  worship- 
ing his  Maker,  demanded  the  fulfillment  of  the  chieftain's 
promise  to  become  a  follower  of  God  if  the  priest  trod 
the  isle  alive.  The  chief  demanded  a  further  proof, 
namely,  that  he  leave  the  priest  on  the  island  alive,  and 
if  when  he  returned  the  next  noon  he  found  him  alive  he 
would  believe  in  his  God.  The  priest  agreed,  only  ask- 
ing that  he  wait  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  the  next  day 
at  sunset  he  and  his  tribe  should  go  to  Table  Rock.  At 
that  time  he  (the  priest)  would  stand  on  the  island's 
shore  at  the  end  of  the  big  Fall.  When  they  saw  that  he 
was  alive,  if  they  would  become  followers  of  God,  they 
should  kneel,  and  across  the  gorge  he  would  bless  them. 
The  chief  paddled  his  bark  canoe  swiftly  up-stream. 

The  next  evening,  at  sunset,  the  priest  went  to  the 
edge  of  the  Fall,  and  the  Indians,  who  were  on  Table 
Rock,  seeing  that  he  still  lived,  knelt  down  and  the  priest 
"Spake  the  word, 

Though  it  was  not  heard, 

And  raised  his  hands, 

As  God  commands, 
And  lifted  his  eyes  to  Heaven. 

Thus  in  the  way  the  church  decrees, 

To  supplicants,  tho'  afar,  on  their  knees, 

Was  the  Benediction  given." 

Then  the  priest,  so  runs  the  legend,  in  imagination 
again  stood  in  a  holy  church,  for 

"It  was  three  long  years  since  he 

Had  stept  within  a  sacristy, 


16  The    Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  17 

A  wondrous  church  it  was  indeed, 
By  Nature's  changeless  laws  decreed, 
Tho'  man  reared  not  the  structure  fair, 
All  churchly  attributes  were  there ! 
The  gorge  was  the  glorified  nave, 
Whose  floor  was  the  emerald  wave, 
The  mighty  fall  was  the  reredos  tall, 

The  altar,  the  pure  white  foam, 
The  azure  sky,  so  clear  and  high, 

Was  simply  the  vaulted  dome. 
The  column  of  spray 
On  its  upward  way, 

Was  the  smoke  of  incense  burned, 
And  the  cataract's  roar, 
Now  less,  now  more, 
As  it  rose  and  fell, 
Like  an  organ's  swell, 

Into  sacred  music  turned. 
While,  like  a  baldachin  o'erhead, 
The  spray  cloud  in  its  glory  spread, 
Its  crest,  by  the  setting  sun  illumed, 
The  form  of  a  holy  cross  assumed." 

Father  de  la  Roche  Daillon  is  the  first  white  man 
known  to  have  been  on  the  Niagara  River.  He  crossed 
it  near  the  site  of  Lewiston,  in  1626.  But  though  we 
have  no  record  of  any  prior  visit  of  a  white  man,  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  such  had  been  made. 

POINTS     OF     HISTORIC     INTEREST    ALONG 
THE    NIAGARA    RIVER 

ON  THE  AMERICAN  SIDE 

Buffalo,  at  the  source  of  the  river,  is  the  eighth  city 
of  the  Union  in  point  of  population,  which  in  1900  was 
355,000.  It  is  famous  as  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Erie  Canal,  and  also  as  the  chief  eastern  port  of  lake 
navigation.  It  is  situated  twenty-two  miles  from  the 
Falls.  It  was  a  village  in  1813,  when  it  was  burned  by 
the  British,  only  one  or  two  houses  being  left  standing. 


iS  T  he    Niagara    Falls 

Black  Rock,  formerly  a  village,  now  a  part  of  Buffalo, 
was  famous  in  the  War  of  1812.  Inside  of  the  present 
limits  of  Buffalo,  along  the  river  shore,  some  seven  or 
eight  so-called  forts  or  batteries  were  located;  as  was 
also  a  blockhouse,  built  about  1810,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
creek.  In  Black  Rock,  General  Smythe  of  Virginia  col- 
lected 5,000  men,  who  responded  to  his  bombastic  circular 
asking  all  to  retrieve  the  Nation's  honor  and  share  in  the 
glory  of  an  invasion  of  Canada.  There  was  no  invasion 
of  Canada  at  that  time,  though  there  was  much  fighting, 
and  two  invasions  at  other  periods  during  the  war. 

Grand  Island  is  noted  as  the  proposed  site,  in  1825,  of 
Major  M.  M.  Noah's  "New  Jerusalem,"  or  the  industrial 
centre  for  the  Jews  of  the  new  world.  Beyond  the  lay- 
ing of  the  corner  stone,  with  due  ceremonies,  on  the  altar 
of  a  Christian  church,  in  Buffalo,  the  project  never  made 
any  advancement. 

Tonawanda,  eleven  miles  above  the  Falls,  is  famous  as 
a  lumber  market,  holding  the  second  place  in  America, 
being  next  to  Chicago,  in  the  amount  of  lumber  handled. 

The  village  of  La  Salle,  five  miles  above  the  Falls, 
close  to  the  mouth  of  Cayuga  Creek,  was  named  after 
the  famous  explorer  La  Salle,  who  at  this  very  point,  in 
1679,  built  his  vessel,  the  "Griffon,"  the  first  craft  other 
than  an  Indian  canoe,  that  floated  on  the  upper  lakes. 
Here,  too,  about  1800,  the  United  States  Government 
established  a  navy  yard. 

Burnt  Ship  Bay,  at  the  lower  end  of  Grand  Island, 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  there  the  defeated 
French  (who  hastened  from  the  West  to  aid  in  the  de- 
fense of  Fort  Niagara,  in  1759),  in  their  flight,  burnt  and 
sunk  two  small  vessels,  in  order  to  prevent  their  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  victorious  British. 

At  Schlosser  Dock,  on  the  night  of  December  29.  1837, 
occurred  the  "Burning  of  the  Caroline."  She  was  an 
American  boat  and  was  thought  to  be  rendering  aid  to 
the  Patriots  on  Navy  Island.  Six  boatloads  of  British 
soldiers  crossed  from  Chippewa,  seized  her,  towed  her 
far  out  into  the  stream,  set  her  on  fire  and  let  her  drift 


Electrical   Handbook  ip 

over  the  Falls.  The  incident  came  very  near  to  involv- 
ing the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  a  war. 

Below  Schlosser  Dock,  and  midway  between  it  and 
the  old  stone  chimney,  was  located  Fort  Schlosser,  built 
by  the  English  in  1761  and  named  after  its  builder.  Just 
below  this  was  located  Fort  de  Portage,  or  Fort  Little 
Niagara,  built  by  the  French  about  1750.  This  was 
burned  by  Joncaire  in  1759.  Here  stands  an  isolated 
stone  chimney,  the  oldest  remaining  bit  of  perfect  ma- 
sonry on  the  frontier,  if  not  in  all  Western  New  York. 
It  was  attached  to  the  barracks  which  the  French  built 
for  Fort  Little  Niagara,  and  was  also  attached  to  the 
mess  house  which  the  English  built  in  connection  with 
Fort  Schlosser. 

The  road  running  back  into  the  country  is  still  called 
the  Portage  Road,  and  was  the  old  road  over  which,  from 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  was  carried  all  the  vast 
freight  going  to  and  coming  from  the  West.  Less  than 
half  a  mile  up  this  road  from  the  river  are  still  to  be 
plainly  seen  the  earthwork  outlines  of  a  blockhouse  built 
by  Captain  Montresor  in  1764.  This  was  one  of  eleven 
built  by  him  that  year  to  protect  the  portage  between 
Fort  Schlosser  and  the  top  of  the  mountain  above  Lewis- 
Ion.  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  power  houses 
are  on  the  river  bank  a  short  distance  below. 

Below  the  next  mill  the  river  runs  in  close  to  the  road, 
and  the  spot  is  still  known  as  Frenchman's  Landing. 
This  was  the  upper  end  of  the  earliest  portage  from  Lew- 
iston  to  the  upper  river ;  was  in  use  by  the  Indians  prob- 
ably before  1600  and  from  about  1700  in  a  small  way,  and 
from  1720  to  1750  was  a  much-used  highway  of  commerce 
under  French  control.  Here,  in  1745,  the  French  built  a 
stone  blockhouse  and  a  storehouse,  known  as  the  first 
Fort  Little  Niagara. 

Next  come  the  Niagara  Rapids  and  Falls,  and  the 
Reservations. 

The  small  settlements  at  Schlosser  and  Manchester 
(now  the  City  of  Niagara  Falls)  were  burnt  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1813. 


so  The    Niagara    Falls 

No  point  of  immediate  historic  interest  occurs  until 
we  reach  the  Devil's  Hole,  a  spot  famed  as  the  site  of  the 
"Massacre"  of  the  British  by  the  Senecas,  in  1763,  one  of 
the  most  noted  historic  incidents  of  the  frontier. 

The  Tuscarora  Reservation,  containing  some  6,000 
acres,  lies  above  the  mountain,  some  three  miles  east. 
The  Tuscaroras  were  the  first  settlers  along  this  frontier, 
in  1780,  and  have  always  been  the  firm  friends  of  the 
United  States. 

The  bluff  on  top  of  the  mountain,  six  miles  from  the 
Falls,  is,  geologists  tell  us,  the  old  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 
On  this  bluff,  in  1678,  and  at  this  point,  stood  Father 
Hennepin  and  La  Salle,  having  climbed  up  the  steep  as- 
cent from  the  plain  below,  which,  from  its  three  plateaus, 
Hennepin  calls  the  "three  mountains."  Here,  in  1764, 
was  built  the  first  of  the  eleven  blockhouses  above  re- 
ferred to.  Here,  also,  was  located  the  upper  end  of  the 
first  railroad  ever  built  in  America.  It  was  built  of  logs 
laid  on  crude  piers  and  ran,  in  a  presumably  straight  line, 
from  this  spot  on  the  cliff  directly  down  the  edge  of  the 
bluff  to  the  water.  True,  it  was  of  wood,  but  cars  ran  on 
it.  It  was  operated  partly  by  hand  power,  which  the  In- 
dians supplied ;  for  an  Indian  brave,  who  would  scorn 
any  other  manual  labor,  was  content  in  those  days  to 
work  at  the  windlass  for  a  whole  day,  receiving  in  pay- 
ment about  one  pint  of  whiskey  and  a  plug  of  tobacco, 
luxuries  unobtainable  in  any  other  way. 

Over  this  incline,  which  was  built  by  Captain  Mon- 
tresor,  and  which  continued  in  active  operation  for  over 
thirty  years,  was  carried  the  entire  freight  going  west- 
ward ;  not  only  the  boats,  cannon  and  military  stores  for 
all  the  western  English  posts,  but  also  the  vast  amount  of 
freight  of  every  description  and  the  boats  and  goods  of 
that  large  force  of  men  who  were  known  in  history  as  fur 
traders. 

At  this  point  on  top  of  the  mountain,  also,  was  located 
Fort  Gray  in  the  War  of  1812. 

The  village  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  Lewiston, 
named  for  Governor  Morgan  Lewis  of  New  York,  and 
was  once  a  place  of  importance  as  the  head  of  navigation 


Electrical   Handbook 


21 


on  Lake  Ontario.  On  its  site  is  believed  to  have  stood 
the  important  village  Onguiaahra  of  the  Neuters. 

At  the  foot  of  the  bluff  above  the  village  ended  the 
incline  railway  already  spoken  of,  and  close  to  it  were 
the  rude  wharves  to  which  came  the  light-draft,  old- 
fashioned  and  clumsy  vessels  of  various  descriptions  that 
brought,  mainly  from  Oswego,  all  the  stores,  both  mili- 
tary and  commercial,  destined  for  the  far  West. 

On  the  first  plateau  above  the  river  overlooking  these 
wharves  stood  the  storehouses  in  daily  use  for  all  this 


The  Inclined  R 


merchandise  during  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  cent- 
ury, and  here  was  located,  for  their  defense,  the  English 
fort  from  which  the  two  ill-fated  companies  started  for 
the  Devil's  Hole.  Near  here,  too,  in  1678,  Father  Hen- 
nepin  landed,  built  a  little  cabin  of  palisades,  and  said  one 
of  the  early  masses  celebrated  on  the  river.  It  may  not 
have  been  the  first,  for  we  know  that  Father  Daillon  was 
on  this  river  in  1626,  and  to  him  possibly  belongs  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  celebrant  on  this  frontier. 

Here,  in  1719,  was  built  the  first  trading  house  on  the 
Niagara.  Erected  under  peculiar  circumstances,  it  was 
destined  to  be  a  point  of  vast  historic  importance.  From 
1688,  when  England  compelled  the  destruction  of  Fort  De 


22  The    Niagara    Falls 

Nonville,  which  stood  where  Fort  Niagara  now  stands, 
both  she,  the  victor,  and  France,  the  vanquished,  desired 
the  reerection  of  a  fort  at  this  location.  Chabert  Jon- 
caire,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  a  Seneca  by  adoption,  and  a 
power  among  the  Indian  tribes,  and  whom  Charlevoix 
describes  as  "speaking  with  all  the  good  sense  of  a 
Frenchman  and  with  all  of  the  eloquence  of  an  Iroquois," 
was  so  beloved  by  the  Senecas  that  they  wanted  him  to 
make  his  dwelling  place  amongst  them,  offering  him  the 
location  of  a  site  wherever  he  chose,  and  to  locate  one  of 
their  villages  around  him. 

Pursuant  to  French  instructions,  he  located  his  cabin 
on  the  river  bank  at  Lewiston.  It  was  called  "Magazine 
Royal,"  and  was  ostensibly  a  trading  house,  but  in  reality 
it  was  a  fort.  Over  it  floated  the  flag  bearing  the  lilies 
of  France.  Its  attendants  were  all  French  soldiers,  and 
ere  a  year  had  passed  it  was  described  as  a  heavily-built 
log  house,  forty  feet  long  by  thirty  feet  wide,  two  stories 
high,  musket  proof,  with  many  portholes  in  its  upper 
story,  and  surrounded  with  palisades.  It  was  possible  to 
locate  the  fort  on  this  plea  at  this  point,  because  Lewis- 
ton  was  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  river,  and  Fort 
Niagara,  where  the  fort  was  really  desired,  was  seven 
miles  away,  and  a  fort  could  not  be  built  there  with  the 
same  pretense.  Joncaire's  house  stood  for  about  six 
years,  and  then  the  French  obtained  the  consent  of  the 
Senecas  to  build  a  dwelling  where  Fort  Niagara  now 
stands. 

Two  miles  below  Lewiston  are  the  five-mile  meadows, 
where,  in  December,  1813,  the  British  crossed  the  river 
for  their  night  attack  on  Fort  Niagara. 

Fort  Niagara,  one  of  the  most  historic  spots  in  North 
America,  stands  to-day  practically  defenseless,  but  bear- 
ing within  its  walls  the  relics  of  almost  two  and  a  half 
centuries.  On  this  point  of  land,  in  1669,  La  Salle  built 
the  first  structure,  other  than  an  Indian  wigwam,  ever 
erected  on  this  frontier.  On  this  site,  in  1678,  La  Salle 
built  Fort  Conti.  On  its  ruins,  in  1687,  De  Nonville  built 
the  ill-fated  fort  that  bore  his  name,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  Senecas  as  soon  as  the  army  departed,  and  was  de- 


Electrical   Handbook  23 

stroyed  the  following  year,  on  the  demand  of  the  Sen- 
ecas,  acting  under  British  instigation. 

In  1725,  the  French  erected,  by  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ecas,  a  stone  structure  on  the  present  site  of  the  Castle, 
whose  foundations  are  to-day  no  doubt  the  oldest  exist- 
ing masonry  west  of  Albany.  This  fort  was  gradually 
strengthened  and  enlarged  by  the  French  until,  at  the 
time  of  its  attack  by  the  British  in  1759,  it  was  as  strongly 
fortified  and  protected  as  the  science  of  that  day,  with 
such  material  as  could  be  gathered  at  so  far  off  a  point, 
could  possibly  make  it.  The  description  of  that  siege,  in- 
cluding the  three  parallels  built  by  the  British  along  the 
lake  shore,  the  death  of  General  Prideaux,  and  the  sub- 
sequent defeat  of  the  French  relieving  force  from  the 
West  by  Sir  William  Johnson,  thus  acquiring  for  Eng- 
land that  spot  which  for  over  half  a  century  she  had  de- 
sired and  where  for  at  least  a  score  of  years  previously 
her  hated  rival,  France,  had  maintained  a  centre  of  mili- 
tary and  commercial  activity,  are  matters  of  history ;  but 
of  the  buildings  that  stand  in  Fort  Niagara  to-day,  the 
lower  part  of  the  stone  walls  dates  back  to  1832,  and  the 
upper  part  of  these  walls  to  about  1861.  The  earthworks 
were  constructed  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago,  while  their  brick  facings  date  only  from  about  1861. 
The  large  building,  the  Castle,  or  mess  house,  dates  from 
1725.  The  first  and  second  stories  of  stone  date  back 
prior  to  1759,  while  the  timbered  roof  dates  from  just 
prior  to  the  American  Revolution.  It  was  the  strategical 
centre  of  the  middle  part  of  North  America  for  over 
one  hundred  years,  and  during  the  eighteenth  century 
its  commandant,  whether  English  or  French,  was  the 
most  important  man  west  of  New  York.  The  two  stone 
blockhouses,  the  best  specimens  of  their  kind  extant  in 
America,  were  built  in  1770  and  1771  by  the  British.  The 
old  bakehouse,  built  in  1762,  replaced  an  earlier  struc- 
ture. The  hot-shot  furnace,  first  built  prior  to  1812,  was 
rebuilt  some  fifty  years  ago. 

The  long,  low  stone  barracks  were  constructed  by  the 
French  about  1750,  and  about  that  same  time  they  built 
the  square  magazine  which  stands  to  the  right  of  the 


24.  The   Niagara   Falls 

entrance  gate.  The  roof  of  this  magazine  is  a  huge,  thick 
stone  arch,  the  modern  shingle  roof  having  been  erected 
over  that. 

Between  the  fort  and  the  village  of  Youngstown, 
along  the  river  shore,  a  line  of  batteries  extended  during 
the  War  of  1812. 

"Niagara  is  without  exception  the  most  important  post 
in  America  and  secures  a  greater  number  of  communica- 
tions, through  a  more  extensive  country,  than  perhaps 
any  other  pass  in  the  world."  So  wrote  Major  Wynne 
in  17/0  His  opinion  was  probably  correct,  for  no  one 
spot  of  land  in  North  America  has  played  a  more  impor- 
tant part  in  the  control,  growth  and  settlement  of  the 
Great  West  than  the  few  acres  embraced  within  its  forti- 
fications. Its  cemetery  is  the  oldest  consecrated  ground 
west  of  Albany. 

ON  THE  CANADIAN  SIDE 

At  the  source  of  Niagara  River  stand  the  ruins,  part 
of  stone,  part  of  earthwork,  of  Fort  Erie,  famed  in  the 
War  of  1812.  The  first  fort  near  this  site  was  built  in 
1764,  as  a  depot  of  supplies  for  General  Bradstreet's 
army.  The  waves  of  the  lake  undermined  and  battered 
the  foundations,  so  that,  about  1781,  a  new  location, 
nearer  the  source  of  the  river  and  on  the  bluff  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  waves  was  selected,  and  a  second  fort  was 
built.  In  1807  this  was  abandoned  and  part  of  the  earth- 
works on  their  present  location  were  constructed.  It  was 
enlarged  by  the  British,  in  1812,  by  the  addition  of  the 
stone  buildings  which  face  the  river;  and  still  further 
enlarged,  in  1814,  by  the  Americans,  when  in  possession 
of  the  fort  for  the  second  time  during  that  war,  by  the 
addition  of  two  large  bastions  and  connecting  works  in 
the  rear  and  on  the  side.  In  1814,  the  Americans,  after 
the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  established  themselves  in  this 
fort,  and  here  soon  afterwards  they  were  besieged  by 
General  Drummond. 

A  little  way  down  the  river,  and  extending  inland,  the 
British  established  a  line  of  siege  works  and  two  bat- 
teries, and  in  the  northwest  bastion,  during  one  of  the 


Electrical   Handbook  25 

British  attacks  on  the  fort,  occurred  one  of  the  most  tre- 
mendous losses  of  life,  due  partly  to  hand-to-hand  con- 
flict and  partly  to  the  explosion  of  the  magazine,  that  has 
ever  occurred  in  any  war  in  so  small  a  space. 

From  Fort  Erie,  on  September  17,  1814,  the  Amer- 
icans made  that  famous  sortie  planned  and  led  by  Gen- 
eral Peter  B.  Porter,  which,  in  the  words  of  Sir  William 
Napier,  "is  the  only  instance  in  history  of  a  besieging 
army  being  utterly  routed  in  a  single  sortie,"  and  which 
event  ended  the  "War  of  1812." 

No  other  site  of  historical  importance  exists  on  the 
river  bank  until  we  reach  Navy  Island.  Though  back  of 
Fort  Erie  some  five  miles.  Navy  Island  is  the  scene  of  the 
Battle  of  Ridgeway,  fought  between  the  Canadians  and 
the  Fenians  in  1866. 

The  Island  contains  340  acres  and  belongs  to  Canada. 
It  is  the  only  island  of  any  size  that  fell  to  her  lot  in 
determining  the  boundary  line  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  which  line  runs  through  the  deepest  channel 
of  the  river.  Navy  Island  is  famed  mainly  as  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Patriots  during  the  War  of  1837. 

On  the  main  shore,  just  east  of  the  village  of  Chip- 
pewa,  are  the  fields  where,  on  July  5,  1814,  was  fought  the 
Battle  of  Chippewa.  On  both  sides  of  the  mouth  of 
Chippewa  Creek  were  located  batteries  during  the  War 
of  1812.  On  the  western  bank  of  this  creek,  from  1794 
until  after  1800,  stood  one  of  the  ordinary  pattern  of 
blockhouses,  built  for  the  protection  of  the  portage 
around  the  Falls  on  the  Canada  side,  and  dignified  by  the 
name  of  Fort  Chippewa. 

One  mile  west  of  the  Falls,  on  the  highest  point  of 
land,  on  July  25,  1814,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of 
Lundy's  Lane.  Commenced  late  in  the  afternoon,  this 
battle,  largely  a  hand-to-hand  conflict,  was  continued  be- 
neath the  glorious  light  of  a  summer  moon  until  long 
after  midnight ;  while  the  ceaseless  roar  of  Niagara  thun- 
dered the  dirge  of  the  many  that  fell  on  both  sides.  The 
central  point  of  the  battlefield  was  a  battery  located  on 
the  hill  where  the  village  cemetery  and  a  monument  in 
honor  of  the  British  who  fell  in  that  battle  now  stand. 


26  The    Niagara    Falls 


The  Canadian  Falls,  Viewed  from  Goat  Island 


Electrical    Handbook  27 

This  hill  was  captured  by  the  Americans  and  held  against 
repeated  assaults,  only,  after  the  bloody  victory  had  been 
gained  by  the  Americans,  to  have  General  Brown,  their 
commander,  order  the  army  back  toward  Chippewa,  leav- 
ing the  cannon,  for  whose  capture  so  many  lives  had 
been  lost,  unspiked  and  alone  on  the  hill,  which  early  the 
next  morning  the  British,  without  opposition,  reoccu- 
pied.  It  is  one  of  the  most  famous  battles  in  history — 
remarkable  in  that  even  now,  nearly  a  hundred  years 
afterwards,  the  Americans  still  claim  the  victory,  and  the 
Canadians,  going  still  further,  annually  celebrate  on  the 
battlefield,  with  pomp  and  ceremony,  a  famous  victory 
which  in  the  opinion  of  their  American  cousins  they  did 
not  win. 

The  village  of  Drummondville,  one-half  mile  west  of 
the  Falls,  was  named  in  honor  of  General  Drummond  of 
the  War  of  1812. 

Queenston  Heights,  where  was  fought  the  battle  of 
October  12,  1812,  is  marked  by  the  noble  monument  to 
General  Brock.  The  remains  of  the  earthworks  of  Fort 
Drummond  are  easily  traceable. 

A  cenotaph  at  the  foot  of  the  heights  marks  the  spot 
where  General  Brock  fell,  mortally  wounded. 

Queenston,  a  small  village  below  the  heights,  was  so 
called  in  honor  of  Queen  Charlotte. 

The  village  of  Niagara,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
called  also,  at  various  times,  Newark  and  Butlersbury,  is 
older  than  any  settlement  on  the  eastern  bank.  In  1792 
it  became  the  residence  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Canada,  and  here  was  held  the  first  session  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Upper  Canada. 

Fort  George,  whose  vast  earthworks  are  plainly  dis- 
cernible to-day,  was  commenced  in  1796  to  provide  a 
habitation  for  the  British  garrison,  which,  soon  after  in 
that  year,  evacuated  Fort  Niagara  under  Jay's  Treaty. 

It  was  enlarged  prior  to  the  war  of  1812,  and  doubled 
in  size,  in  the  immediatg  preparation  for  that  war,  and 
was,  of  course,  the  military  centre  of  the  Canadian  lower 
Niagara  during  that  period.  From  here  General  Brock, 
who  was  in  command,  started  to  take  part  in  the  Battle 


28  The    Niagara    Falls 

of  Queenston  Heights,  and  when  he  returned  it  was  in 
his  coffin,  to  be  buried  in  the  Cavalier  Bastion  of  the 
fort,  from  whence  his  remains  were  subsequently  re- 
moved to  their  present  tomb  in  Brock's  monument.  Here, 
in  1813,  the  Americans,  attacking  from  the  lake  side,  cap- 
tured the  village  and  the  fort,  which  they  held  until  De- 
cember of  that  year,  when  General  McClure,  the  Amer- 
ican general,  on  a  day's  notice,  without  provocation,  set 
fire  to  and  burned  the  village,  thus  turning  the  inhab- 
itants out  into  the  cold.  His  destruction  of  the  buildings 
in  the  fort  and  of  the  tents  and  other  military  stores 
(which  he  left  unharmed)  would  have  done  far  more 
good  for  the  American  cause  and  have  left  far  less  bene- 
fits for  the  advancing  British  than  they  found  when  they 
entered  .the  fort.  This  act  so  aroused  the  British  sol- 
diery that  it  resulted  in  the  retaliation  and  the  utterly 
unnecessary  attack  and  massacre  at  Fort  Niagara  and  the 
burning  of  the  Niagara  frontier. 

Fort  Mississaga,  a  stone  blockhouse,  surrounded  by 
high  earthworks,  stands  to-day  a  perfect  specimen  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century  fort.  It  was  built  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1814,  when  they  held  control  of  Fort  Niagara;  for 
without  their  occupation  of  that  fort,  being  directly  cov- 
ered by  the  guns  thereof,  it  could  not  have  been  built. 
Neither  during  the  War  of  1812  nor  during  any  subse- 
quent period  has  it  played  any  important  part.  During 
the  War  of  1812  the  water  front  for  a  mile  up  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  was  a  line  of  batteries. 

Navy  Hall,  the  residence  of  Governor  Simcoe,  the  first 
Governor-General  of  Upper  Canada,  is  still  standing,  a 
long,  low,  one-story  wooden  building  (where,  in  1792, 
met  the  first  Parliament  of  Upper  Canada),  though  not 
on  its  original  site. 

About  a  mile  back  from  the  river  are  still  seen  the 
wooden  barracks  occupied  during  the  Revolution  by  that 
noted  band  of  white,  but  savage,  warriors  known  as  "But- 
ler's Rangers." 


Electrical   Handbook  29 

GEOLOGIC  NIAGARA 

During  the  last  seventy-five  years  geologists  have 
written  a  great  deal  about  Niagara,  and  from  it  specu- 
latists  have  deduced  theories  as  to  the  antiquity  of  the 
earth,  trying  to  prove 

"That  He  who  made  it,  and  revealed  its  date 
To  Moses,  was  mistaken  in  its  age." 

In  early  geological  days  this  entire  section  was  cov- 
ered by  the  salt  waters  of  the  Silurian  seas,  which  is 
proved  by  the  shells  of  the  Conularia  Niagarensis,  found 
in  the  shale  underlying  Goat  Island  and  along  the  gorge  ; 
this  shale  having  once  been  the  muddy  bottom  of  these 
seas,  and  this  shell  being  found  only  in  salt  water. 

At  a  later  geological  period,  on  top  of  what  is  now 
this  shale,  at  the  bottom  of  a  warm  ocean,  still  covering 
all  this  land,  grew  a  vast,  thick  and  solid  bed  of  coral,  of 
which  ancient  life  the  Niagara  limestone  of  to-day  is  a 
monument. 

Subsequently,  these  two  ancient  and  contiguous  sea 
bottoms,  then  solid  stone,  were  uplifted,  and  by  the  con- 
figuration of  the  earth  hereabouts  the  original  Niagara 
River  was  formed.  In  general  terms  its  course  was  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  present  river  (though  its  volume  was 
not  as  great)  as  far  north  as  the  Whirlpool,  from  whence 
it  ran,  in  a  broadening  channel,  to  St.  David's,  westerly 
from  its  present  outlet ;  and  prior  to  the  coming  of  the 
ice  age  it  had  cut  this  channel  back  to  the  Whirlpool  and 
perhaps  even  farther  south. 

Next  came  the  glacial  period,  when  this  part  of  the 
country  was  enveloped  with  a  covering  of  ice  (work- 
ing down  from  the  northeast)  similar  to  that  now  cover- 
ing Greenland,  though  having  a  depth  of  hundreds  of 
feet.  This  ice  age,  as  approximately  determined,  lasted 
50,000  years,  and  closed  about  200,000  years  ago. 

This  ice  sheet,  as  it  moved  forward  and  southward, 
broke  off  all  the  projecting  points  of  rock  and  scraped 
all  the  rocks  themselves  bare.  Its  presence  and  power 
are  attested  by  the  scratchings  and  markings  on  the 
smoothed  surfaces  of  the  top  layer  of  rock  wherever  it  is 


jo  T  h  c    Niagara    Falls 

laid  bare,  as  far  south  as  the  Ohio  River,  and  is  apparent 
on  Goat  Island  and  along  the  frontier.  This  ice  sheet 
brought  down  in  its  course  not  only  boulders  from  the 
far  north  and  northeast,  but  its  own  vast  accumulations 
and  scrapings  and  abrasions  which  we  call  "drift,"  and 
with  this  drift  it  filled  up  (and  with  its  enormous  weight 
pressed  compactly)  all  valleys,  gorges  and  indentations 
of  the  earth  in  its  course,  among  them  the  old  outlet  or 
bed  of  the  Niagara  River  from  St.  David's  to  the  Whirl- 
pool. 

Many  of  the  boulders  brought  here  in  the  ice  age,  car- 
ried perhaps  hundreds  of  miles,  have  been  collected  in 
this  section  and  used  in  the  construction  of  the  bridges 
that  have  been  built  on  the  Reservation,  on  the  main 
shore,  opposite  Goat  Island. 

On  the  recession  of  the  ice  sheet  a  second  Niagara 
River  came  into  existence. 

The  weight  of  this  vast  ice  sheet  had  canted  or  tilted 
the  land  to  the  northeast,  so  that  at  its  recession  the 
waters  of  the  present  three  great  northern  lakes  flowed 
east  by  the  Ottawa  and  later,  as  the  land  rose,  by  the 
Trent  Valley.  As  this  second  Niagara  River  drained 
only  the  Lake  Erie  basin,  and  as  Lake  Erie  was  very 
much  smaller  than  at  present,  it  worked  in  a  small  chan- 
nel, was  of  small  volume,  and  had  but  small  rock-cutting 
power  to  take  up  the  erosive  process  of  the  earlier  Niag- 
ara River,  which  had  drained  only  this  same  Lake  Erie 
basin. 

This  is  the  period,  again  referred  to,  when  the  present 
channel  to  the  south  and  west  of  Goat  Island  (the  Cana- 
dian channel)  was  made. 

The  second  Niagara  River  gradually  merged  itself 
into  a  vast  fresh-water  lake,  formed  by  the  melting  ice 
and  heavy  rainfalls,  and  covering  all  the  Lake  Erie  basin, 
and  gradually  rose  in  level  until  it  stood  fully  100  feet 
above  the  present  rocky  bed  of  Goat  Island. 

Its  northern  boundary  was  the  escarpment  or  ridge 
whose  lowest  point  was  just  above  the  present  village  of 
Lewiston,  which  point  is  thirty-two  feet  above  the  pres- 


Electrical    Handbook  31 

ent  level  of  Lake  Erie.  Here  the  rising  waters  first  broke 
oivr  the  dam,  and  here  Niagara  Falls  were  born. 

From  here  they  cut  their  way  back  to  the  Whirlpool, 
for  the  waters  found  it  easier  to  cut  a  new  channel  back 
through  the  soft  rock  from  this  point  in  the  embankment 
than  to  scour  out  the  old  drift-filled  channel  (which  was 
at  the  very  bottom  of  the  lake)  from  the  Whirlpool  to 
St.  David's. 

The  flow  of  the  lake  set  towards  the  Falls  and  brought 
down  from  the  Erie  basin  fluvial  deposits  in  large 


The  Suspension  Bridge  Across  Niagara  River  at  Lewiston 

amounts  during  the  succeeding  years,  depositing  them  all 
along  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  It  is  of  these  fluvial  de- 
posits, consisting  of  sand  and  loam  (excepting  a  compar- 
atively small  layer  of  drift  next  to  the  top  rock),  that  the 
soil  of  Goat  Island  is  formed,  and  of  whiqh  the  soil  cov- 
ering the  rocky  substrata  along  the  gorge  is  formed. 

This  Goat  Island  soil,  more  than  any  surface  in  this 
section,  is  the  geologists'  paradise.  While  some  lands 
and  forests  near  here  may  not  have  been  cultivated  by 
man,  the  western  end  of  Goat  Island  is  an  absolutely 
unique  piece  of  virgin  forest. 


$2  The    Niagara    Falls 

Most  of  the  time  it  has  been,  in  general  terms,  inac- 
cessible to  man ;  and  since  accessible  by  bridges,  no  cut- 
ting of  the  trees,  no  clearing  of  the  land  nor  cultivation 
thereof,  no  pasturing  of  cattle,  in  fact,  no  disturbance  of 
the  soil  has  been  permitted. 

Here,  then,  is  the  original  drift,  with  the  subsequent 
overlying  alluvial  deposits  and  accumulations,  undis- 
turbed by  man.  And  when,  as  in  this  case,  in  this  undis- 
turbed fluvial  deposit  are  found  fresh-water  shells,  it 
proves  that  the  Niagara  River  to-day  flows  through  what 
was  once  the  bottom  of  a  vast  fresh-water  lake  that  cov- 
ered all  this  section. 

As  the  Falls  cut  their  way  backward,  so  their  height 
gradually  diminished,  and  the  level  of  this  fresh-water 
lake  fell  until,  finally,  there  came  a  time  when  the  land  of 
what  is  now  Goat  Island  rose  above  the  waters.  That 
this  lake  existed  at  a  comparatively  recent  geological  pe- 
riod is  proven  by  the  fact  that  these  shells  now  found  on 
Goat  Island  are  identical  in  species  with  those  found  in- 
habiting the  Niagara  River  and  Lake  Ontario  to-day. 
According  to  the  most  accurate  calculation,  the  consensus 
of  geological  opinion  is  that  35,000  years  have  elapsed 
since  the  Falls  were  at  Lewiston,  which  is  seven  miles 
away;  and  that  the  fluvial  deposits  on  the  island  began 
as  soon  as  the  river  rose  over  the  moraine  at  the  foot  of 
Lake  Erie  can  scarcely  be  doubted. 

That  in  35,000  years  there  is  no  specific  difference  be- 
tween the  ancient  shells  found  in  the  soil  of  Goat  Island 
and  their  existing  representatives  and  progeny  in  this 
locality  is  wonderful  indeed. 

When  the  Falls  in  their  recession  shall  have  reached 
the  head  of  the  rapids  they  will  be  about  fifty  feet  higher 
than  they  are  now,  or  over  200  feet  in  height,  less  whatever 
the  upward  slope  of  the  bed  of  the  river  below  the  Fall 
may  diminish  that  total,  and  it  cannot  be  by  many  feet. 
The  average  dip  of  the  rocky  strata  to  the  south  is  twenty- 
five  feet  to  the  mile,  and  the  average  slope  of  the  river 
channel  in  the  opposite  direction  is  fifteen  feet  to  the 
mile. 


Electrical   Handbook  33 

When  the  Falls  shall  have  receded  yet  another  half 
mile,  or  a  total  distance  of  one  mile  from  their  present 
location,  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  strata  which  dips 
rapidly  downward,  and  by  the  continued,  but  gradual 
elevation  of  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  therefore  of  the 
surface  of  the  water  below  them,  they  will  have  decreased 
in  height  to  about  100  feet.  And  when  they  shall  have 
receded  still  another  mile,  their  height  will  be  only  about 
sixty  feet. 

As  geologists  differ  by  thousands  of  years  as  to  how 
long  it  took  the  Falls  to  cut  their  way  from  Lewiston 
ridge  to  their  present  location  it  would  be  impossible  to 
say  when  in  the  history  of  this  section  the  waters  had  so 
far  drained  off  that  the  muddy  deposits  overlying  the 
rocky  bed  of  what  is  now  Goat  Island  first  appeared 
above  the  slowly-receding  waters  of  the  lake,  unless  we 
adopt  some  length  of  time  for  this  work  as  a  basis. 

But  it  is  not  so  difficult,  by  noting  the  elevation  of  the 
land,  the  trend  of  the  rocks  and  the  depth  of  the  over- 
lying "drift,"  to  locate  approximately  where  the  Falls 
were  when  this  occurred.  At  that  time,  judging  from 
the  present  levels  of  the  land,  the  Falls  must  have  been 
at  a  point  nearly  a  mile  north  of  the  present  location  of 
the  Horseshoe  Fall.  And  if  we  accept,  as  above,  one 
foot  a  year  as  a  fair  average  estimate  of  the  recession  of 
Niagara  from  Lewiston  Heights  in  the  more  recent  geo- 
logical time,  it  must  have  been  between  four  and  five 
thousand  years  ago  that  the  soil  of  Goat  Island,  then  a 
part  of  the  mainland,  first  appeared ;  and  probably  it  is 
nearly  as  long  since  it  became  an  island. 

In  speaking  of  the  recession  of  Niagara,  the  recession 
of  the  Horseshoe  Fall  is  referred  to,  for  it  recedes  several 
hundred  times  as  fast  as  the  American  Fall;  for  in  the 
time  that  the  Horseshoe  Fall  has  receded  from  Prospect 
Point,  at  the  lower  or  northern  edge  of  the  American 
Fall,  across  the  width  of  the  American  Fall  and  across 
the  width  of  Goat  Island  to  its  present  position,  the 
American  Fall  has  receded  but  a  very  few  feet.  Hence, 
on  these  deductions,  Goat  Island  has  existed  as  an  island 


34 


The    Niagara    Falls 


from  about  the  time  of  the  Flood,  or  from  about  2,300 
B.  C. 

This  proves  the  statement  that  "in  a  scientific  sense 
the  island  is  of  trifling  antiquity,  in  fact,  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  point  out  in  the  western  world  any  considerable 
tract  of  land  more  recent  in  its  origin." 

Niagara  has  been  called  the  "sun  clock  of  the  ages," 
and  the  stratification  of  the  rocks  through  which  it  has 
cut  its  way  may  be  studied  at  many 'points,  especially  at 
the  "Whirlpool  Rapids,"  above  the  Whirlpool,  where  both 
shores  of  the  gorge  are  little  covered  with  foliage,  and 
again  on  the  Goat  Island  cliff. 


The  Whirpool  Rapids 


PART  II 

AMERICAN  NIAGARA    POWER 
DEVELOPMENT  BY   CANAL 


36  The    Niagara    Falls 


The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power 
and  Manufacturing  Company 

IN  the  development  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydrau- 
lic Power  and  Manufacturing  Company  there 
is  to  be  found  the  oldest  power  project  at  Ni- 
agara Falls.  In  the  year  1852  the  Porter  family, 
which  was  among  the  early  settlers  and  much  inter- 
ested in  the  future  of  the  place,  donated  the  land 
necessary  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  extending 
from  the  upper  river  to  the  edge  of  the  high  bank  a 
short  distance  below  the  falls.  In  the  year  mentioned, 
negotiations  were  commenced  with  Caleb  J.  Wood- 
hull  and  Walter  Bryant  for  the  construction  of  the 
power  canal.  Under  the  agreement  made,  these  men 
were  to  construct  the  canal  and  receive  a  plot  of  land 
having  800  feet  frontage  on  the  upper  river,  and  a 
strip  100  feet  wide  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
canal,  namely  4,400  feet.  They  also  received  75  acres 
of  land  about  the  lower  end  of  the  canal,  which  plot 
had  a  frontage  of  nearly  a  mile  along  the  high  bank. 
The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Company  was  in- 
corporated in  March,  1853,  with  Caleb  J.  Woodhull 
as  president,  and  Walter  Bryant,  agent.  This  com- 
pany immediately  contracted  for  the  construction  of 
a  canal  70  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep,  with  wharves 
along  the  company's  land  on  the  upper  river.  The 
turning  of  the  first  sod  was  made  the  occasion  of  a 
celebration.  Work  progressed  for  16  months,  when  a 
lack  of  funds  caused  suspension  of  operations.  In  1858 
the  work  was  resumed  by  the  Niagara  Falls  Water  Power 
Company,  of  which  Stephen  M.  Allen  was  president.  On 
Saturday,  September  I,  1860,  Horace  H.  Day  secured 
control  of  the  property,  and  by  July  i,  1861,  had 
completed  a  canal  36  feet  wide  and  about  eight  feet 

37 


38  T  h  c    N  i  a  g  a  r  a    Fall  s 

deep.  The  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  delayed 
operations,  and  for  years  the  canal  stream  poured 
over  the  cliff  unused.  Early  in  the  '7o's,  Charles  B. 
Gaskill  built  a  grist  mill  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
canal,  and  thus  became  the  first  user  of  the  canal 
power. 

In  the  year   1877  the   canal  property   and   all   its 
belongings   and   rights   were    purchased   by   the   late 


Upper  End  of  Canal 
The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and  M« 


ifacturing  Company 


Jacob  F.  Schoellkopf,  father  of  Mr.  Arthur  Schoell- 
kopf,  and  the  late  Abram  Chesbrough.  These  men 
organized  the  present  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  of  which  Jacob  F. 
Schoellkopf  was  president  up  to  September  15,  1899, 
the  day  of  his  death.  From  the  date  of  the  acquire- 
ment of  the  canal  property  by  this  company,  the 
development  has  continued  steadily,  and  what  the 
company  has  accomplished  has  been  a  large  factor 
in  the  development  of  the  industries  of  Niagara 
Falls.  They  proceeded  along  the  conservative  lines 


Electrical   Handbook  39 

that  characterize  all  the  Niagara  development.  To- 
day the  canal  has  a  width  of  100  feet  for  its  full 
length,  while  its  final  depth  will  be  14  feet.  At 
the  lower  end  of  the  canal  proper  there  is  a  basin 
850  feet  long  and  70  feet  wide,  the  length  of  which 
is  to  be  still  further  increased  to  1,000  feet.  Ex- 
tending from  this  basin  to  forebays  located  close 
to  the  edge  of  the  high  bank  are  two  connecting 
canals,  through  which  water  flows  from  the  basin 
to  the  forebays  and  then  through  penstocks  to  the 
turbines. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and 
Manufacturing  Company  was  begun  before  engineers 
and  manufacturers  dared  to  design  and  build  water- 
wheels  for  use  under  the  high  head  possible  in  con- 
nection with  this  plant.  For  this  reason,  shafts  or 
pits  were  sunk  in  the  rock  near  the  edge  of  the  cliff 
to  such  depths  as  were  considered  safe  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  water-wheels  then  made.  These  depths 
varied  from  25  to  75  feet.  The  turbines  were  located 
at  the  bottoms  of  these  pits,  from  which  the  water 
escaped  through  tunnels  into  the  gorge  below.  The 
discharge  from  some  of  these  tunnels  is  still  to  be 
seen  at  Niagara,  as  portrayed  in  an  accompanying 
illustration.  Vertical  shafts  were  installed  to  bring 
the  power  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

In  1881  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and 
Manufacturing  Company  established  its  first  station 
to  supply  electricity  for  commercial  purposes.  This 
station  was  known  as  Station  No.  i,  and  was  located 
in  what  was  then  Quigley's  mill,  now  the  Cliff  Paper 
Company's  mill.  In  this  station  were  installed  arc 
light  machines  to  furnish  a  street  and  store  service, 
the  machines  being  operated  from  the  mill  shaft. 
It  was  here  that  the  public  distribution  of  electricity 
in  Niagara  Falls  began. 

In  1895-96  methods  applied  to  the  development  of 
power  had  made  considerable  progress,  and  about 
this  time  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and 


40  The   Niagara    F  alls 

Manufacturing  Company  began  the  erection  of 
Power  House  No.  2.  This  power  house  was  erected 
at  the  water's  edge  in  the  gorge,  and  was  so  designed 
that  the  water  could  be  used  under  the  full  available 
head  of  210  feet.  Not  only  was  this  made  possible, 
but  the  company  was  also  able  to  take  advantage  of 
the  use  of  horizontal  shafts  for  turbines  and  genera- 
tors which  method  practically  eliminates  all  bearing 


Interior  of  Station  No.  2 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  and  Manufacturing  Company 

trouble,  not  a  single  shut  down  from  any  such  trou- 
ble having  been  necessary  in  seven  years. 

In  the  first  section  of  this  power  house  there  were 
installed  four  double  discharge  Leffel  turbines  giv- 
ing a  total  capacity  of  6,850  horse  power.  A  steel 
penstock  eight  feet  six  inches  in  diameter  carries 
the  water  supply  for  these  wheels  from  the  forebay 
at  the  top  of  the  cliff  to  the  power  station  below. 

The  first  section  of  the  gorge  power  house  having 
proved  a  great  success,  the  company  at  once  added 


Electrical    Handbook  41 

two  more  sections  making  a  station  170  feet  long  by 
100  feet  wide.  The  construction  is  of  stone  and 
steel.  In  this  power  house  there  are  now  in  opera- 
tion 15  turbines,  the  capacity  of  14  of  them  ranging 
from  1,600  to  3,500  horse  power.  The  combined  out- 
put capacity  is  about  34,000  horse  power.  The  tur- 
bines of  the  two  sections  last  built  receive  their 
supply  of  water  through  steel  penstocks  n  feet  in 
diameter.  In  respect  of  their  power  capacity,  these 
penstocks  are  the  largest  in  the  world. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  review  the 
machines  driven  by  each  turbine,  and  the  application 
that  is  made  of  the  electric  power  so  developed: 

Turbines  Nos.  4,  5  and  6,  each  drive  two  s6o-kw. 
300-volt,  direct  current,  Westinghouse  generators, 
the  current  from  which  is  supplied  to  the  Pittsburg 
Reduction  Company. 

Turbine  No.  7  drives  two  s6o-kw.,  sso-volt,  direct 
current  generators  of  General  Electric  make.  One 
of  these  generators  carries  a  commercial  load,  sup- 
plying current  to  the  Niagara  Falls  Brewing  Com- 
pany and  to  fifty  other  users  of  power.  The  other 
generator  carries  a  railway  load,  for  the  operation 
of  the  Niagara  Gorge  Railroad.  A  booster  with  a 
range  of  300  amperes  is  attached,  and  is  in  circuit 
with  the  Youngstown  and  Lewiston  railroad  four- 
teen miles  distant  from  the  power  house.  Turbine 
No.  7  has  also  conected  to  it  one  2OO-kw.,  135-volt 
generator,  the  current  from  which  goes  to  the  Na- 
tional Electrolytic  Company.  Both  generators  and 
booster,  are  of  General  Electric  make. 

Turbine  No.  8  has  attached  one  875-kw.,  direct 
current  generator,  feeding  5,000  amperes,  175  volts, 
to  the  National  Electrolytic  Company.  The  generator 
is  of  General  Electric  make,  and  is  of  the  double 
commutator  form.  It  is  shown  in  one  of  the  accom- 
panying illustrations.  Turbine  No.  8  also  drives  an 
alternating  current  generator  of  i,ooo-kw.,  11,000- 
volts,  3-phase,  and  of  Bullock  make. 

Turbine   No.   9  has   attached  a   General    Electric 


42  The    Niagara    Falls 

generator  of  875-kw.,  5,000  amperes,  175  volts,  cur- 
rent from  which  goes  to  the  National  Electrolytic 
Company,  and  also  a  i,ooo-kw.,  direct  current,  Gen- 
eral Electric,  325-volt,  3,100  ampere  generator,  the 
current  from  which  goes  to  the  Acker  Process  Com- 
pany. 

Turbine  No.  10  drives  two  General  Electric,  1,000- 
kw.,  325-volt,  3,100  ampere  generators,  the  current 
from  which  is  used  by  the  Acker  Process  Company. 


No.  8  Turbine  Driving  875-Kw.  5000  Ampere  Generator 
The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and  Manufacturing  Company 

Turbine  No.  n  and  turbine  No.  12  each  operate 
two  Westinghouse,  75o-kw.,  direct  current,  30O-volt, 
2,500  ampere  generators  for  the  Pittsburg  Reduction 
Company. 

Turbine  No.  13  has  a  Bullock  i,ooo-kw.,  11,000- 
volt,  3-phase  generator  on  one  end,  and  on  the 
other  end  a  7oo-kw.,  2,2OO-volt,  single-phase  alter- 
nator, made  by  the  Walker  Manufacturing  Company. 
This  latter  machine  supplies  the  current  for  over 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  incandescent  lighting  through- 


Electrical    Handbook  43 

out  the  city.  It  is  operated  for  the  Buffalo  and 
Niagara  Falls  Electric  Light  and  Power  Company. 

Turbine  No.  14  and  turbine  No.  15  each  operate 
two  Westinghouse,  i,ooo-kw.,  30o-volt,  3,330  ampere 
generators  for  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company. 

Turbine  No.  16  and  turbine  No.  17  each  operate 
two  Westinghouse,  750-kw.,  direct  current  genera- 
tors for  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company. 

Turbine  No.  18  is  a  25o-h.p.  wheel  made  by  J.  M. 
Voith,  Heidenheim,  Germany.  It  drives  the  exciters 
used  in  connection  with  the  3-phase  alternators  above 
referred  to. 

Turbine  No.  19  is  of  500  h.p.,  and  drives  a  4OO-kw., 
50O-volt  generator,  for  commercial  service. 

In  addition  to  the  distribution  of  electric  power 
as  above  outlined,  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic 
Power  and  Manufacturing  Company  has  tenants  to 
whom  it  supplies  hydraulic  power,  as  follows:  The 
Cliff  Paper  Company,  2,500  h.p.;  Cataract  City  Mill- 
ing Company,  700  h.p.;  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper 
Company,  2,200  h.p.;  Oneida  Community  Company, 
Ltd.,  300  h.p.;  City  Water  Works,  400  h.p.;  Niagara 
Falls  Milling  Company,  1,800  h.p.,  making  a  total  of 
7,900  h.p. 

Inasmuch  as  it  was  possible  to  locate  factories 
very  close  to  the  power  house,  practically  the  entire 
electrical  development  has  been  in  the  forms  required 
by  the  different  industries.  The  majority  of  these 
call  for  direct  current  at  voltages  varying  from  175 
to  300.  However,  the  last  two  machines  to  be 
installed  in  this  power  house  were  i,ooo-kw.,  11,000- 
volt,  3-phase  alternators,  built  by  the  Bullock  Manu- 
facturing Company.  An  illustration  given  herewith 
shows  one  of  the  horizontal  shaft  turbines,  to  one 
end  of  which  is  connected  an  875-kw.,  direct-curent 
generator,  while  at  the  other  end  is  connected  one 
of  the  i,ooo-kw.  alternators.  These  alternators  are 
the  first  installation  of  alternating  current  machinery 
made  by  the  company. 

The  u,ooo-volt  current  generated  by  the  machines 


The   Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  45 

attached  to  turbines  Nos.  8  and  13  is  transmitted  by 
a  3-phase,  lead-covered  cable  system  to  a  trans- 
former station  located  on  the  top  of  the  cliff  along 
the  canal  basin.  In  this  station  the  voltage  of  a 
portion  of  the  current  is  reduced  to  2,200  for  trans- 
mission and  use  in  the  vicinity,  the  building  also 
serving  as  the  terminal  station  of  an  overhead  trans- 
mission line  carrying  power  at  high  voltage  to  the 
company's  factory  property  at  the  north  end  of  the 
city.  This  property  is  connected  with  the  railroad 
lines  by  a  switch  over  a  mile  long  laid  by  the  com- 
pany. On  this  land  the  new  plant  of  the  Carter- 
Grume  Company,  and  the  plant  of  the  Central  Ma- 
chine Company  are  located. 

The  switchboard  of  Power  House  No.  2  is  about 
100  feet  long  and  is  located  on  a  gallery  that  runs 
along  the  cliff  side  of  the  station.  It  has  32  panels 
of  Vermont  marble,  on  which  are  installed  some  of 
the  largest  switches  in  existence.  The  switchboard 
;md  station  wiring  are  of  fireproof  construction,  and 
the  board  is  so  arranged  that  although  there  are 
many  different  kinds  of  currents  generated  in  the 
station,  a  relay  is  obtained  for  every  generator  and 
water  wheel  in  the  station,  except  the  single-phase 
alternator.  The  n,ooo-volt  portion  of  the  switch- 
board was  designed  and  built  by  employees  of  the 
company. 

The  present  development  does  not  represent  the 
full  capacity  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power 
and  Manufacturing  Company's  canal,  and  the  com- 
pany has  commenced  the  erection  of  an  additional 
power  house.  This  new  station  will  be  located  at 
the  water's  edge,  in  the  gorge,  north  of  the  present 
station.  When  completed,  it  will  have  a  length  of 
350  feet,  and  a  width  of  90  feet.  Sketches  of  Station 
No.  3  are  presented  herewith.  Unlike  the  present 
station,  it  will  have  a  centre  wall  extending  the 
entire  length  of  the  station,  dividing  the  water  wheels 
from  the  generators.  The  capacity  of  the  station 
will  be  100,000  horse-power,  and  there  will  be  a 


7  h  c    N  i  a  g  a  r  a    F  alls 


Power  House  No.  3 
The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic  Power  and  Manufacti 


ing  Company 


Electrical   Handbook      •       47 

separate  penstock  to  supply  water  to  each  8,000  horse- 
power unit.  These  units  will  also  be  of  the  hori- 
zontal shaft  form,  and  will  run  at  300  rev.  per  min., 
giving  25-cycle,  3-phase  current,  at  11,000  volts  direct 
from  the  generators.  It  is  expected  that  the  first 
section  of  this  power  house  will  be  in  operation  by 
January,  1906. 


Tenants  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Hy- 
draulic Power  and  Manufactur- 
ing Company 

THE  NIAGARA  FALLS  BREWING  COMPANY 

THE  Niagara  Falls   Brewing  Company  manu- 
factures lager  beer,  ale,  and  porter.     Its  plant 
is   operated  by   electrical   power  exclusively. 
The   brewery   has   been    in    operation     since 
1880.     It   has    an   annual   capacity   of   90,000   barrels, 
with   a   storage   capacity   of  60,000  barrels.     Its   ex- 
tensive cellars  are  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  the 
stone  taken  out  having  been  utilized  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  buildings.     These  buildings  cover  an  area 
of  two  acres  and  are  situated  on  the  highest  ground 
in  Niagara  Falls,  on  the  river  bank,  commanding  a 
beautiful    view    of    the    cataract    above    and    of    the 
Whirlpool  Rapids  below. 

The  cellars  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Brewing  Com- 
pany are  chilled  by  the  direct  expansion  refrigerating 
system.  The  6o-ton  refrigerating  plant  is  of  the  vertical 
double-acting  type,  and  is  driven  by  a  Soo-volt  direct 
current  motor.  This  machine  is  capable  of  main- 
taining a  temperature  as  low  as  30°  fahr.  throughout 
the  cellars,  which  have  a  capacity  of  443,197  cubic 
feet.  A  second  soo-volt  motor  serves  to  operate  all 
the  machinery  in  the  brewery,  including  the  mash 
machine,  malt  mill,  freight  elevator,  keg  washers, 
beer  pump,  rotary  water  pump,  bottling  works  ma- 
chines, etc.  The  power  is  obtained  from  the  circuits  of 
the  Hydraulic  Power  and  Manufacturing  Company. 


Electrical   Handbook  49 

PETTEBONE-CATARACT    PAPER    COMPANY 

THE  predecessor  companies  going  to  make  up 
the  Pettebone-Cataract  Paper  Company  rank 
among  the  oldest  of  industrial  concerns  at 
Niagara  Falls,  and  were  the  pioneers  in  the 
manufacture  of  news  paper  in  this  locality.  The  first 
mill  was  located  on  Bath  Island,  now  Green  Island. 
News  paper  was  first  made  from  rags,  later  on  from 
straw,  and  finally  from  wood. 

This  company  was  formed  October  first,  1892, 
by  the  consolidation  of  The  Pettebone  Paper  Com- 
pany and  the  Cataract  Manufacturing  Company. 
The  latter  company  had  erected  on  the  Hydraulic 
Canal,  in  1880,  a  mill  for  the  manufacture  of  ground 
wood,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  news  paper,  and 
the  former  company  had  built  a  paper  mill  in  the 
same  locality  in  1884. 

The  property  of  the  company  consists  of  a  strip 
of  land  on  the  Hydraulic  Canal  with  a  frontage  of 
115  feet,  extending  back  some  330  feet  to  the  high 
bank  of  the  river,  on  which  are  located  a  four-story 
brick  mill  100  by  115  feet,  containing  two  Fourdrinier 
paper  machines,  and  all  the  machinery  and  apparatus 
required  in  a  well-equipped  plant.  In  the  rear  there 
is  a  three-story  stone  building  for  the  manufacture  of 
ground  wood  pulp. 

Hydraulic  power  is  used  exclusively,  the  com- 
pany developing  1,400  h.  p.  by  the  use  of  turbines 
placed  one  hundred  feet  down  the  high  bank.  Water 
is  taken  from  the  canal  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hydrau- 
lic Power  and  Manufacturing  Company,  and  after 
passing  the  water-wheels  is  discharged  into  the  lower 
river. 

The  daily  output  of  the  plant  is  twenty-five  tons 
of  finished  news  paper  and  twenty  tons  of  ground 
wood  pulp. 


The    Niagara    Falls 


CLIFF  PAPER  COMPANY 


T 


HE  Cliff  Paper  Com- 
pany is  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of 
wood  pulp  and  news 
paper.  The  process  is  com- 
mon to  all  mills  in  the 
United  States  making  this 
class  of  paper.  The  peculiar 
features  of  the  plant  are  that 
the  pulp  mill,  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  high  bank,  in  the 
gorge  of  the  Niagara  River, 
is  driven  by  water  power, 
using  water  which  has  been 
used  once  under  75  feet 
head.  After  doing  duty  un- 
der this  head,  the  tail  water 
is  delivered  to  a  penstock 
running  down  125  feet  fur- 
ther and  is  utilized  in  hori- 
zontal turbine  Leffel  wheels 
p.  These  wheels  are  direct 
connected.  The  power  is  therefore  used  as  econom- 
ically as  possible.  The  pulp  is  brought  to  the  paper 
mill  above  the  bank  by  a  chain  carrier. 

The  paper  machines  are  driven  by  electric  motors 
supplied  with  current  from  generators  direct  connected 
to  300  h.  p.  Leffel  horizontal  turbine  wheels  using 
tail  water  from  other  wheels. 

The  pulp  mill  and  paper  mill  are  connected  by 
an  inclined  railway  used  for  carrying  freight  and 
passengers. 

The  Cliff  mill  was  the  first  development  of  Niagara 
water  power  under  a  head  of  over  100  feet,  and  was  in 
operation  before  either  of  the  power  companies. 


Paper  Mill  at  Top  of  Cliff 

Pulp  Mill  at  Water's  Edge 

Cliff  Paper  Company 

about    2,500   h. 


giving 


Electrical    Handbook 


51 


Turbine  and  General 
Cliff  Paper  Company 


$2  The    Niagara    Falls 

WM.  A.  ROGERS,  LIMITED 

THIS  business  was  started  at  Niagara  Falls  in  1893 
under  the  name  of  the  Niagara  Silver  Company. 
It  has  grown  very  rapidly  and  in  1902  it  was 
amalgamated    with    the    important    business    of 
Wm.  A.  Rogers,  of  New  York  city,  at  which  time  the 
present  name  of  Wm.  A.  Rogers,  Limited,  was  adopted. 
Several  extensions  of  the  manufacturing  plants  have  been 


\.  Rogers,  Limited 


made  in  recent  years,  and  at  the  present  time,  in  addition 
to  the  large  plant  now  operated  at  Niagara  Falls,  the 
company  owns  and  operates  factories  at  Oneida,  N.  Y., 
and  Northampton,  Mass.  The  recent  enlargement  of  the 
Niagara  Falls  factory  has  very  considerably  added  to  its 
capacity  and  at  the  present  time  the  company  is  employ- 
ing in  Niagara  Falls  nearly  500  employees.  The  com- 
pany manufactures  silver  plated  ware  and  cutlery. 


Electrical    Handbook  53 


54  The   Niagara    Falls 

THE  NIAGARA  GORGE  RAILROAD  CO. 
THE  NIAGARA  GORGE 

IN  its  passage  from  the  Falls  to  Lake  Ontario  the 
Niagara  River  passes  through  a  deep  and  narrow 
cleft  between  rocky  cliffs,  falling,  in  its  course  of 
fourteen  miles,  more  than  in  feet,  and  forcing 
its  way  through  a  channel  so  confined  and  precipi- 
tous that  the  tumult  of  the  waters  makes  a  scene 
of  grandeur  that,  in  the  estimation  of  many  travelers, 
exceeds  the  spectacle  of  the  cataract  itself.  The 
only  means  of  entrance  to  the  Gorge  is  by  the 
Niagara  Gorge  Railroad,  a  well-built,  double-track 
electric  road,  whose  cars  start  from  Prospect  Park, 
Niagara  Falls,  and  traverse  the  length  of  the  Gorge 
to  Lewiston  in  forty-five  minutes,  running  the  en- 
tire distance  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water,  and 
giving  the  passenger  an  opportunity  to  obtain  an 
unrivaled  view  of  the  Rapids  and  Whirlpool,  or 
to  stop  at  various  points  for  a  longer  inspection 
of  the  wonders  of  the  mighty  river.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  Gorge  Road  is  considered  by  experts  to 
be  one  of  the  greatest  engineering  feats  of  modern 
times.  For  years  engineers  contended  that  it  could 
not  be  built,  but  in  1890  surveys  were  made  by  Mr. 
George  A.  Ricker,  a  civil  engineer  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
which  proved  that  it  was  perfectly  feasible  to  con- 
struct a  railroad  through  the  Gorge  that  would 
be  at  once  safe  and  comparatively  easy  of  opera- 
tion. Work  was  begun  soon  afterwards,  and  in  1895 
the  road  was  opened  for  passenger  traffic.  The 
completion  of  the  road — which  was  rebuilt  and  im- 
proved in  1890 — makes  it  possible  for  the  tourist 
to  visit  the  Gorge  from  end  to  end  where  before  it 
was  only  accessible  in  spots. 

ENTRANCE  TO  THE  GORGE 

Passing  down  a  moderate  incline,  the  Gorge 
Road  takes  the  sightseer  under  the  two  railroad 
bridges  which,  spanning  the  Gorge  below  the  Falls, 


Electrical   Handbook 


55 


give  access  to  Canada,  as  well  as  providing  the  most 
direct  rout  between  the  East  and  the  great  West. 
The  cantilever  bridge  of  the  Michigan  Central  Rail- 
road was  built  in  1882;  while  the  steel  arch  bridge, 
built  in  1897  by  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad  of  Canada, 
replaces  the  familiar  old  Suspension  Bridge,  which 
was  long  one  of  the  wonders  of  this  point.  The 
Grand  Trunk  bridge  is  said  to  be  the  largest  arch 
in  the  world. 

THE  WHIRLPOOL  RAPIDS 

Just  below   the   railroad  bridges   the   gorge   sud- 
denly   narrows    and    the    Whirlpool    Rapids    begin. 


Falls  and  Whirlpool  Rapids 
Niagara  Gorge  Railroad 

The  depth  of  the  channel  of  the  river  at  this  point 
has  never  been  ascertained.  So  precipitous  is  the 
rocky  bed  of  the  stream  that  the  river  reaches  a 
speed  of  twenty-seven  miles  an  hour,  and  the  waves 
which  are  formed  in  its  passage  reach  a  height  of 
thirty  feet  at  times.  Two  attempts  have  been  made 
to  navigate  these  rapids  in  vessels,  both  being  suc- 
cessful. The  original  "Maid  of  the  Mist"  was  taken 


56  The    Niagara    Falls 

through  the  lower  river  safely  several  years  ago, 
and  C.  A.  Perry  of  Niagara  Falls  went  through 
safely  in  a  lifeboat,  which  he  made  himself.  Two 
persons  have  attempted  to  swim  through  the  rapids. 
One  got  through  alive,  but  the  other,  Capt.  Matthew 
Webb,  an  Englishman,  who  had  swum  the  English 
Channel  sucessfully,  lost  his  life  in  the  Niagara 
rapids,  on  July  24,  1883.  Several  persons  have  gone 
through  the  rapids  successfully,  inclosed  in  barrels 
built  for  the  purpose. 

THE  NIAGARA  WHIRLPOOL 

Three  quarters  of  a  mile  below  the  bridges  the 
river  broadens,  and,  changing  its  course  suddenly, 
an  immense  whirlpool  is  formed,  into  which  is 
gathered  all  the  floating  material  that  the  current 
has  brought  down  from  above.  Driftwood,  which 
may  have  started  on  its  course  to  the  sea  far  up  in 
Lake  Superior,  may  be  seen  whirling  slowly  about 
in  the  surface  current  that  seems  to  make  a  com- 
plete circle  from  side  to  side  of  the  chasm.  Occa- 
sionally, the  fragments  of  a  wrecked  vessel  will  be 
seen  in  the  Whirlpool's  clutches,  brought  from 
above  the  Falls  by  the  river,  and  here,  too,  are 
usually  found  the  bodies  of  the  unfortunates  who, 
through  accident  or  the  deliberate  intent  to  end  their 
lives,  are  carried  over  the  cataract  to  a  certain  death. 
Many  accidental  deaths  occur  every  year  in  this  way, 
while  Niagara  Falls  has  long  been  known  as  a 
favorite  resort  for  suicides.  Once  the  unfortunate 
victim  is  in  the  grasp  of  the  swift  current  above  the 
Falls  there  is  no  hope  for  him,  although  the  his- 
tory of  the  region  teems  with  stories  of  efforts  to 
succor  those  whose  rashness  or  folly  has  led  them 
too  near  the  brink  of  the  Falls. 

The  passenger  on  the  Gorge  Road  who  looks 
across  the  Whirlpool  may  discern  a  wooded  glen 
running  back  from  the  river  on  the  Canadian  side. 
This  glen,  it  is  said  by  geologists,  marked  the  ori- 
ginal channel  of  the  river,  but,  owing  to  some  mighty 


Electrical   Handbook  57 

convulsion  of  nature,  that  outlet  for  the  waters 
of  the  great  lakes  was  closed  and  the  river  was 
forced  to  make  a  new  passage  for  itself  through  the 
present  channel.  In  cutting  out  its  new  course  the 
waters  have  worn  away  the  rocks  into  peculiar  and 
interesting  shapes.  Not  the  least  interesting  of 
these  is  the  large  rock  which  towers  up  on  the 
Canadian  side  just  at  the  angle  where  the  river 
turns  from  the  Whirlpool  to  flow  onward  toward 
Lake  Ontario.  For  years  every  photograph  taken 
of  the  Whirlpool  from  the  American  side  has  shown, 
apparently  carved  in  the  top  of  this  rocky  eminence, 
a  strange  resemblance  to  a  human  face.  Within 
the  last  few  months  the  .action  of  the  atmosphere 
has  crumbled  the  rock  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
face  is  discernible  to  the  naked  eye.  It  has  been 
named  "The  Demon  of  the  Gorge,"  and  it  stands 
there  immovable  and  inscrutable,  keeping  watch  and 
ward  over  the  awful  secrets  of  nature  and  the  mys- 
terious Whirlpool. 

THE  LOWER  NIAGARA  RAPIDS 

Below  the  Whirlpool  the  channel  through  which 
the  waters  have  to  force  their  way  again  becomes 
narrower,  and  a  second  set  of  rapids  is  formed 
by  the  descent  of  the  stream — not  so  swift  nor  so 
tumultuous  as  the  Whirlpool  Rapids,  but  still 
very  swift  and  strong  and  of  great  interest.  To 
this  series  of  lower  rapids  has  been  given  the  name 
of  "Devil's  Hole  Rapids,"  the  name  being  that  of 
a  historic  spot  a  little  farther  down  the  Gorge.  The 
channel  of  the  river  is  said  to  be  deeper  through 
these  rapids  than  at  any  other  point,  but  the  exact 
depth  cannot  be  ascertained,  because  the  strong 
current  deflects  any  sounding  apparatus  that  is  used. 

Fronting  the  Devil's  Hole  Rapids  is  Ongiara 
Park.  This  is  a  pleasant  glen  in  the  woods  on  the 
sloping  bank  above  the  river,  owned  by  the  Niagara 
Gorge  Railroad  Company,  and  used  as  a  picnic  grove 
for  passengers  by  that  route. 


5#  The    Niagara    Falls 

THE  GIANT  ROCK 

Just  below  Ongiara  Park  the  Gorge  Road  passes 
behind  an  enormous  rock,  that  rises  from  the  edge 
of  the  water  and  towers  high  above  as  the  car 
passes.  What  cataclysm  of  nature  detached  this 
rock  from  the  cliff  above  and  sent  it  thundering 
down  the  precipice  to  find  a  resting  place  on  the 
river's  brink  is  not  known.  Ever  since  white  men 
first  explored  the  Gorge  the  Giant  Rock  has  stood 
like  a  silent  sentinel,  and  when  the  Gorge  Road 
was  built  it  was  decided  to  leave  it  where  it  is, 
rather  than  to  destroy  the  ancient  landmark. 

THE  DEVIL'S  HOLE 

From  end  to  end  the  Niagara  Gorge  teems  with 
historical  incident.  For  the  first  century  and  a  halt" 
after  white  men  took  possession  of  the  lands  in  the 
Niagara  region,  there  were  continual  struggles — 
first  between  the  whites  and  the  savages,  later  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  French,  and  latest  of 
all,  between  the  English  in  Canada  and  the  men  of 
English  descent,  who  had  cast  their  lot  with  the 
young  American  republic.  The  Devil's  Hole,  which 
is  reached  by  an  easy  ascent  from  the  Gorge  Road, 
was  the  scene,  in  1763,  of  one  of  the  most  awful 
of  the  many  tragedies  of  the  Niagara  region.  On 
the  I3th  of  September  in  that  year  a  train  of  British- 
American  troops  under  Lieut.  Don  Campbell  of 
the  Royal  American  Regiment,  was  returning  to 
Fort  Niagara  from  Detroit,  where  it  had  been  with 
a  load  of  supplies  for  the  garrison  there.  Fort 
Schlosser,  now  the  village  of  Echota,  above  the 
Falls,  was  reached  on  the  morning  of  the  I3th, 
and  that  evening  the  train  set  out  for  Fort  Niagara, 
taking  the  well-beaten  road  along  the  top  of  the 
cliff  on  the  American  side.  Accompanying  the 
troops  was  John  Steadman,  one  of  the  first  settlers 
in  this  region  and  master  of  the  portage  around  the 
Falls.  Heedless  of  impending  danger,  the  caval- 


Electrical    Handbook  59 


60  The    Niagara    Falls 

cade  traveled  along  in  safety  until  the  cleft  in  the 
rocks — since  known  by  the  name  of  the  Devil's 
Hole — was  reached,  when,  without  a  moment's 
warning,  a  large  band  of  Seneca  Indians  who  had 
been  lying  in  ambush  at  this  point  attacked  the  trav- 
elers with  guns  and  tomahawks.  Of  the  ninety 
persons  in  the  company,  all  but  three  were  either 
driven  over  the  precipice  to  meet  a  horrible  death 
on  the  rocks  below  or  killed  outright  by  the  savages. 
One  drummer-boy  escaped  by  his  drum-straps  catch- 
ing in  a  pine  tree,  part  way  down  the  cliff,  where 
he  hung  until  rescued.  His  name  was  Matthews, 
and  he  lived  until  1821,  when  he  died  in  Canada  at 
the  age  of  seventy-four.  One  driver  was  wounded 
and  lay  concealed  in  a  clump  of  evergreens,  where 
the  blood-thirsty  savages  overlooked  him.  Stead- 
man  himself  who,  the  Indians  said  later,  seemed  to 
bear  a  charmed  life,  spurred  his  horse  through  the 
opposing  Indians  and  made  his  escape  to  Fort 
Schlosser. 

The  noise  of  the  conflict  was  heard  at  Lewiston 
and  two  companies  of  troops  which  were  stationed 
there  came  hurriedly  up  the  trail  to  the  rescue-  of 
the  supply-train.  Seeing  no  enemy,  they  marched 
boldly  across  the  little  bridge  that  spanned  Bloody 
Run,  a  small  stream,  the  dry  bed  of  which  may 
be  seen  to-day,  and  when  half  way  across  the  bridge 
were  themselves  attacked  by  the  Senecas,  who  had 
hidden  in  the  evergreens  as  they  heard  the  approach 
of  the  troops.  Only  eight  of  the  soldiers  survived 
this  second  ambush.  The  Indians  hastily  scalped 
their  victims,  taking  in  all  eighty  scalps,  including 
those  of  six  officers,  and  mounting  the  horses  that 
had  not  been  forced  over  the  cliff,  went  back  to  their 
home  on  the  banks  of  the  Genesee.  It  is  only  fair 
to  the  generally  peaceable  Seneca  nation  to  say  that 
this  attack  was  made  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
chiefs  of  that  tribe,  by  a  band  of  young  braves  under 
the  leadership  of  "Farmer's  Brother,"  a  man  who  aft- 
erwards became  a  leader  of  his  people  and  a  friend 


Electrical    Handbook  61 

of  the  whites,  and  who  regretted  to  the  end  of  his 
life  his  youthful  folly. 

After  the  massacre  at  the  Devil's  Hole  block- 
houses were  erected  at  different  points  along  the 
portage  trail,  1,200  yards  apart,  for  the  better  pro- 
tection of  travelers.  The  ruins  of  some  of  these 
structures  may  yet  be  seen. 

LEWISTON 

Where  the  splendid  steamers  of  the  Niagara 
Navigation  Company's  Toronto  line  touch  at  Lewis- 
ton  is  the  spot  where  the  first  white  man  who  ever 
entered  the  Niagara  River,  so  far  as  history  tells, 
landed  after  sailing  up  from  Lake  Ontario.  This 
was  in  1678,  and  the  explorer  who  braved  the  en- 
trance to  an  unknown  river  was  the  intrepid  La 
Salle.  In  his  search  for  a  portage  La  Salle  ascended 
as  far  as  the  lower  rapids.  Finding  no  safe  landing 
place,  he  returned  to  Lewiston,  and  there  built  a 
cabin,  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  as  a  storehouse  and 
base  of  supplies  for  his  projected  expedition  above 
the  Falls,  which  he  had  not  yet  seen.  This  struc- 
ture is  believed  to  have  been  almost  at  the  point 
where  the  present  dock  is.  From  this  point  a 
portage  was  established,  the  trail  leading  up  the 
mountain  above  Lewiston  and  traversing  the  table- 
land above  the  cliff  to  a  point  above  Echota.  This 
trail  was  followed  for  many  years,  or  until  railroads 
were  built,  which  made  it  unnecessary  to  transport 
t goods  by  wagon.  Farmer's  wagons  and  pleasure 
vehicles,  however,  still  follow  the  old  road,  that 
runs  almost  exactly  as  La  Salle  laid  it  out  more 
than  two  centuries  ago. 

NATIONAL  ELECTROLYTIC  COMPANY 

THE     National     Electrolytic     Company     com- 
menced   business    in    1898.     It    has    a    large 
plant  on  the  lands  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Hy- 
draulic Power  and  Manufacturing  Company 
and   is   engaged   in   the   electrolytic   manufacture    of 
chlorate  of  potash.     The  company  uses  2,500  horse 


62  The    Niagara    Falls 

power,  which  is  transmitted  by  aluminum  cables  from 
Power  House  No.  2,  located  at  the  water's  edge  in 
the  gorge,  to  the  works  on  top  of  the  high  bank. 
It  is  one  of  the  successful  electrochemical  industries 
of  Niagara  Falls. 

ACKER  PROCESS  COMPANY 

THE  works  of  the  Acker  Process  Company  are  lo- 
cated in  the  lower  power  district  on  property 
bounded  by  Third  street,  Walnut  street,  New 
York  Central  Railroad  tracks,  and  by  the  gorge 
of  the  Niagara  River  below  the  falls. 

The  works  cover  a  ground  area  of  about  70,000 
square  feet.  The  total  power  utilized  aggregates 
about  3,800  electrical  horse  power,  and  is  delivered 
in  the  form  of  direct  current,  the  greater  portion  be- 
ing utilized  in  electrolytic  furnaces  for  the  decompo- 
sition of  sodium  chloride.  This  current  of  9,000  am- 
peres and  300  volts  is  conducted  through  great  bundles 
of  aluminum  conductors  placed  in  trenches  under  ground, 
leading  from  the  power  house  in  the  gorge  below  the 
falls  to  the  company's  works,  a  distance  of  approxi- 
mately 1,600  feet.  The  aggregate  cross-section  of  the 
conductors  carrying  this  current  is,  of  course,  very  large. 
The  entire  current  is  utilized  in  a  single  series  or  row  of 
furnaces. 

The  products  manufactured  by  the  company  are: 
caustic  soda,  bleaching  powder,  tetrachloride  of  tin 
(known  to  the  trade  as  bichloride  of  tin),  oxide  of  tin, 
tin  crystals,  and  carbon  tetrachloride. 

The  electrolytic  alkali  process  was  the  first  of 
the  several  processes  to  be  installed  and  put  in  oper- 
ation, and  is  due  to  Mr.  Charles  E.  Acker.  A  de- 
scription of  the  process  was  first  given  at  the  inau- 
gural meeting  of  the  American  Electrochemical  So- 
ciety, at  Philadelphia,  in  1902,  and  was  published  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Society,  Volume  I.,  1002. 
An  article  by  Clinton  Paul  Townsend  may  be  found 
in  the  ''Electrical  World  and  Engineer"  (New  York), 


Electrical    Handbook  dj 

of  April  5,  1902.  An  article  by  Professor  Haber, 
being  the  first  part  of  a  report  to  the  German  Bunsen 
Society  for  Applied  Chemistry,  on  "The  Industrial 
Development  of  Electrochemistery  in  America,"  ap- 
peared in  the  "Zeitschrift  fur  Elektrochemie,"  begin- 
ning April  16,  1903. 

Mr.  Acker  was  awarded  the  Elliott  Cresson  gold 
medal  by  the  Franklin  Institute,  for  his  process  of 


Acker  Process  Company 

producing  caustic  soda  and  chlorine  by  the  electrolysis 
of  fused  common  salt. 

Various  American  and  Canadian  patents  covering 
this  particular  process  have  been  issued.  The  process 
has  also  been  patented  in  the  principal  European  coun- 
tries, the  number  of  such  patents  aggregating  about 
forty. 

A  new  process  for  the  manufacture  of  tetrachlo- 
ride  of  tin  was  introduced  in  the  works  in  1903,  and 
the  company  now  turns  out  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  tetrachloride  of  tin  consumed  in  the  coun- 
try. The  company  does  not  distribute  this  product 


64 


The   Niagara    Falls 


Electrical    Handbook  65 

at  retail,  but  makes  shipments  in  carload  lots  only. 
This  process,  as  well  as  that  for  the  manufacture  of 
tetrachloride  of  carbon,  tin  crystals,  oxide  of  tin, 
etc.,  is  due  to  Mr.  Charles  E.  Acker.  Numerous  pat- 
ents have  been  applied  for  in  the  United  States  Pat- 
ent Office,  and  have  been  allowed,  although  they 


have   not  been  issued.     There  have   as  yet  been  no 
published  descriptions  of  these  methods. 

The  companyis  works  are  illustrated  on  page  63, 
and  an  interior  view  of  the  furnace  room  showing 
a  row  of  electrolytic  furnaces  on  page  64.  Each 
furnace  is  here  represented  with  five  electrodes  or 


66 


The    Niagara    Falls 


anodes.  Since  this  photograph  was  taken  these 
anodes  have  been  enlarged,  so  that  there  are  now 
four  anodes  employed  in  each  furnace  instead  of 
five.  The  current  of  9,000  amperes  passing  through 
the  furnaces  in  series  is,  therefore,  carried  by  four 
anodes  in  each  furnace.  The  normal  current  carried 
by  each  anode  is  approximately  2,250  amperes.  A 


B  K'BTB 


Figure  2 

single  anode  may  be  removed  at  any  time  from  a  fur- 
nace, during  which  time  the  current  is  carried  by  the 
three  remaining  anodes  to  the  extent  of  3,000  am- 
peres or  more  for  each  anode. 

The  cathode  is  of  molten  lead  which  is  caused 
to  circulate  by  a  jet  of  steam  introduced  into  a 
well  containing  the  molten  metal  at  the  end  of  the 
furnace,  shown  in  Fig.  i.  The  operation  of  this 


Electrical    Handbook  6f 

steam  injector  is  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  2.  The 
jet  of  steam  issues  from  a  small  orifice  under  pres- 
sure, and  passes  through  an  injector  or  converter 
pipe  made  of  cast  iron,  which,  in  practice,  is  a 
single  casting  with  the  cover  D.  There  are  thus  only 
two  parts  to  the  furnace,  namely,  the  main  casting  E, 
which  is  lined  with  ordinary  firebrick  for  containing 
the  molten  salt,  and  the  cast  iron  cover  D.  The 
steam  passing  through  the  converter  carries  along 


Figure  3 

with  it  more  or  less  of  the  molten  lead  in  its  path. 
This  lead  strikes  the  curved  cover  and  is  deflected 
into  the  long  channel  B,  through  which  it  passes  to 
the  other  end  of  the  electric  furnace,  where  it  spreads 
over  the  hearth  and  becomes  the  cathode,  taking  up 
the  sodium  liberated  from  the  salt  by  the  current  of 
9,000  amperes.  The  alloy  of  lead  and  sodium  finally 
reaches  the  injector  in  the  course  of  the  circulation, 
and  the  sodium  decomposes  the  steam,  thereby  form- 
ing anhydrous  caustic  soda,  hydrogen  gas  and  metal- 
lic lead.  The  hydrogen  burns  continuously  in  a  large 


68  The    Niagara    Falls 

flame,  the  lead  again  flows  back  through  the  long 
channel  B  and  the  molten  caustic  soda  runs  continu- 
ously out  of  the  furnace  through  the  overflow  spout. 
The  molten  caustic  soda  is  now  collected  from  all 
the  furnaces  and,  while  still  molten,  is  conducted  to 
a  caustic  pot,  where  it  is  allowed  to  settle.  This 
operation  goes  on  continuously  twenty-four  hours 
per  day,  and  seven  days  per  week.  There  is  no  inter- 
mission. 

A  general  idea  of  the  setting  of  the  furnaces  is 
given  in  Fig.  3,  which  also  indicates  the  method 
of  taking  off  the  chlorine  gas.  This  is  taken  away 
by  slight  suction  through  passages  in  the  brick  piers 
between  each  pair  of  furnaces. 


PART  III 

AMERICAN  NIAGARA   POWER 
DEVELOPMENT  BT  TUNNEL 


The  Niagara  Falls  'Power  Company 

THE  utilization  of  the  power  of  Niagara  Falls 
has  for  years  been  the  dream  of  engineers 
and  of  all  those  interested  in  industrial  devel- 
opment. In  the  past  many  schemes  for  this 
purpose  have  been  suggested  by  engineers  and  in- 
ventors, but  never,  until  the  advent  of  the  modern 
era  in  electrical  engineering,  has  the  proposition,  on 
a  large  scale,  been  able  to  stand  upon  a  basis  attrac- 
tive to  the  capitalist.  The  difficulty  in  the  past  has 
not  been  to  apply  the  waters  of  Niagara  for  the  turn- 
ing of  a  water  wheel,  for  many  of  the  schemes  then 
suggested  would  have  accomplished  this  success- 
fully; but  what  to  do  with  the  power  when  thus  de- 
veloped at  the  water  wheel  shaft  was  the  problem 
before  the  engineer.  Obviously  here  the  question  of 
transmission  arose  as  of  prime  importance. 

Among  the  numerous  early  plans  suggested  will 
be  found  extensive  systems  of  pneumatic  tubes  oper- 
ated by  turbine  driven  air  compressors,  the  air  pipes 
leading  therefrom  to  factories  located  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  power  house,  each  factory  having  its  own  air 
motors  thus  operated.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  note 
that  one  of  these  early  plans  contemplated  the 
transmission  of  power  to  Buffalo  by  this  means. 

Another  plan  consisted  in  lines  of  countershaft- 
ing,  bracketed  on  columns,  extending  radially  from 
a  central  power  station,  this  long  shafting  to  be 
driven  by  water  wheels  at  the  power  station  through 
a  system  of  gearing.  Factories  were  to  be  located 
along  these  lines  of  shafting  and  were  to  receive  their 
power  by  clutches  connected  to  these  shafts. 

Still  another  plan  involved  the  construction  of  a 
network  of  surface  canals  fed  by  a  common  intake 
from  the  upper  Niagara  River.  Factories  were  to 


7^  The    Niagara    Falls 

be  established  along  these  canals  and  take  water 
from  them  for  the  operation  of  individual  turbines; 
the  dead  water  to  be  discharged  in  branch  tunnels 
connected  to  a  main  trunk  tunnel  leading  to  the 
lower  river. 

These  plans  now  look  grotesque,  but  twenty  years 
ago  or  so  they  were  seriously  considered  by  good 
engineers.  They  were  discarded  largely  for  finan- 
cial reasons,  the  systems  showing  low  efficiency  and 
high  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance.  The 
final  solution  of  the  problem  by  electrical  methods 
is  almost  ideal  in  its  simplicity  and  efficiency  as  a 
means  of  transmitting  the  energy  of  Niagara  to  the 
consumers. 

In  the  electrical  distribution  of  Niagara  power 
an  essential  advantage  has  resulted  which  was  not 
fully  recognized  at  the  time  of  its  first  adoption. 
As  the  uses  of  this  power  have  developed  it  has  been 
found  that  not  only  was  power  wanted  for  industrial 
purposes  but  primarily  electric  power.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  the  case  of  the  electrochemical  and 
electric  lighting  applications.  If  pneumatic,  hy- 
draulic or  mechanical  power  had  been  supplied  for 
use,  it  would  have  been  necessary  for  all  the  electro- 
chemical plants  to  convert  the  power  into  electric 
current,  before  they  could  use  it,  with  all  the  loss 
in  power  which  would  result  from  this  conversion. 
So  also  with  the  electric  lighting  and  electric  rail- 
way applications,  where  power  is  wanted  in  the  form 
of  electric  current. 

The  general  construction  and  organization  of 
apparatus  adopted  by  The  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company  for  utilizing  the  hydraulic  energy  of  the 
Falls  is  as  follows:  A  short  canal  has  been  exca- 
vated at  a  point  about  one  mile  above  the  Falls  on 
the  American  side,  its  direction  being  approximately 
at  right  angles  to  the  river.  This  canal  leads  the 
water  into  two  power  houses  located  on  opposite 
sides.  From  the  canal  the  water  flows  into  pen- 
stocks and  thence  to  the  turbines,  which  are  installed 


Transverse  Section  of  Power  House  No.  2 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 


74 


The    Niagara    Falls 


near  the  bottom  of  the  two  wheelpits  excavated 
out  of  solid  rock  under  the  two  respective  power 
houses.  After  passing  through  the  buckets  of  the 
turbines  and  giving  up  its  energy  thereto,  the  water 
is  discharged  into  a  tunnel  about  twenty-one  feet  in 
diameter,  which  carries  it  off  under  the  city  of  Ni- 
agara Falls,  a  distance  of  approximately  7,000  feet, 
to  the  lower  river.  Each  turbine  is  direct  con- 


Interior  of  Power  House  No.  i 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 

nected  through  a  hollow  vertical  shaft  to  an  electric 
generator  installed  above  near  the  ground  level. 

Power  House  No.  I,  which  was  the  first  to  be 
constructed,  contains  ten  vertical  shaft  turbines,  each 
direct  coupled  to  an  alternating  current  generator  of 
5,000  h.p.  capacity.  Power  House  No.  2,  which  was 
completed  early  in  1904,  contains  eleven  generating 
units  of  the  same  capacity,  making  a  total  capacity 
for  the  two  plants  of  105,000  e.h.p. 


Electrical    Handbook  75 

The  illustration  shows  Power  House  No.  2  in 
section  and  illustrates  the  general  arrangement  of 
apparatus  as  adopted  in  both  plants.  From  the  canal 
the  water  flows  through  submerged  arches  into  an 
enclosed  forebay  F.  Thence  through  the  racks  R 
the  water  enters  the  penstock  P  and  flows  downward 
through  it  to  the  wheel  case  W.  From  the  wheel 
case  it  is  forced  at  a  pressure  of  about  fifty  pounds 
per  square  inch  inwardly  through  the  buckets  of  the 
turbine  and  out  through  the  draught  tube  D  into  the 
tail  race  T,  and  thence  through  the  tunnel  to  the 
lower  river. 

Power  House  No.  i  differs  from  this  arrangement 
hydraulically  in  that  the  turbines  discharge  their 
water  into  the  tail  race  openly  without  draught 
tubes. 

In  both  power  houses  the  electric  generators  are 
of  the  alternating  current  type,  wound  for  2,200 
volts.  2-phases,  25-cycles,  and  operate  at  a  speed  of 
250  r.p.m. 

In  the  older  plant  the  alternators  are  all  of  the 
external  "revolving  field  or  umbrella  type,  while  in 
Power  House  No.  2  the  last  five  machines  are  of  the 
internal  field  construction.  This  internal  field  ar- 
rangement affords  several  advantages  of  simplicity 
and  o-f  accessibility  to  the  various  parts  of  the  ma- 
chine. 

In  -general  construction  and  method  of  operation 
the  two  power  houses  are  very  similar,  the  structural 
changes  introduced  in  No.  2  being  principally  along 
the  line  of  improvements  in  detail,  which  are  the 
result  of  the  evolution  which  has  taken  place  in 
engineering  methods  since  the  first  plant  was  in- 
stalled. 

When  the  first  power  house  at  Niagara  Falls  was 
proposed  for  a  capacity  of  50,000  h.p.,  with  an  ulti- 
mate tunnel  capacity  of  100,000  h.p.,  many  people 
wondered  how  it  would  be  possible  to  dispose  com- 
mercially of  such  a  large  amount  of  electric  power. 
Central  station  managers  who,  after  a  strenuous 


76  The    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 

canvass  for  new  customers,  had  been  accustomed  to 
increasing  the  output  of  their  plants  by  the  addition 
of  a  i5O-kw.  Edison  bi-polar  machine,  were  stag- 
gered by  the  magnitude  of  the  quantities  involved  in 
this  new  proposition.  Skeptical  opinions  were  ex- 
pressed based  upon  industrial  and  electrical  condi- 
tions then  existing,  and  these  opinions  at  that  time 
were,  in  the  main,  justifiable. 

Since  that  time,  however,  great  developments  have 


2200O  Volt  Switches  and  Bus-bars  at  Tonawanda  Section 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company- 
taken  place  in  the  electrical  arts  which  have  made  pos- 
sible the  present  realization  of  such  a  demand  for 
power.  The  developments  which  have  created  this  de- 
mand have  been,  first  of  all,  in  electro-chemistry,  though 
the  output  of  the  Niagara  plant  is  not  confined  to 
electro-chemical  applications,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. Large  blocks  of  its  power  are  in  use  for 
electric  railway  propulsion,  electric  lighting,  and 
mechanical  power  application.  One  of  the  most 


Electrical   Handbook 


77 


recent  and  important  factors  in  the  growth  of  this 
power  system  has  been  the  introduction  of  the  elec- 
tric motor  drive  for  factory  appliances.  The  evolu- 
tion of  economical  methods  in  power  transmission 
has  made  the  delivery  of  Niagara  power  commer- 
cially possible  to  a  widely  scattered  market. 

As  a  result  of  these  developments  in  the  applica- 
tion of  electrical  energy  the  first  power  house   has 


Internally  Revolving  Field  5000  H.  P.  Alternator  and  Hydraulic 

Governor  in  Power  House  No.  2  of  The  Niagara 

Falls  Power  Company 

reached  the  limit  of  its  capacity  of  50,000  h.p.  and 
the  second  plant,  having  a  capacity  of  55,ooo  h.p., 
is  well  along  towards  its  limit. 

The  electrical  energy  starts  from  the  bus-bars  of 
the  power  house  at  a  pressure  of  2,200  volts,  two- 
phase,  25-cycles,  constituting,  so  to  speak,  the  raw 
material  upon  which  the  various  transformations  are 
subsequently  made.  From  the  bus-bars  the  system 
divides  into  three  distinct  classes  of  service. 

The  first  of  these  embraces  the  local  distribution 


5000  H.P.  GENERATORS 


f    \f    \f    v 

U  POWER    HOUSE     Ull        BUSBARS        \\[(      8MQ  VOLTS       [((( 


Electrical    Handbook  /p 

to  factories  which  are  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  power  house,  these  customers  being 
supplied  by  underground  cables  directly  from  the 
bus-bars  at  the  generator  voltage,  phase  and  fre- 
quency. 

The  second  class  might  be  termed  the  interme- 
diate-distance transmission. 

In  this  case,  the  2,2OO-volt,  two-phase  current, 
immediately  after  leaving  the  power  house  bus-bars, 
is  transformed  to  u,ooo-volt,  three-phase  current 
by  means  of  step-up  transformers,  and  transmitted 
underground  to  a  step-down  transformer  station 
about  two  miles  from  the  power  house.  There  it  is 
reconverted  into  2,2OO-volt,  two-phase  current,  and 
is  distributed,  as  in  the  first  system,  for  various  fac- 
tory uses  by  means  of  underground  cables.  This 
system  is  used  to  supply  factories  whose  distance 
from  the  power  house  renders  it  cheaper  to  buy 
step-up  and  step-down  transformers  and  transmit  at 
a  high  voltage,  than  to  buy  the  copper  necessary  to 
supply  them  with  power  directly  from  the  power 
house  bus-bars  at  2,200  volts.  The  object  in  trans- 
forming into  three-phase  current  in  this  system  and 
back  again  into  two-phase  at  the  step-down  station 
is  to  effect  the  saving  in  copper  resulting  from  the 
use  of  the  three-phase  transmission,  which  amounts 
to  twenty-five  per  cent.,  while  maintaining  the  serv- 
ice to  all  factories  uniform  at  2,2OO-volt,  two-phase 
current.  In  all  the  underground  distribution,  con- 
duits are  used  with  the  cables  drawn  through  ducts 
in  the  usual  manner. 

In  the  third  class  we  have  long-distance  trans- 
mission. Here  the  2,2OO-volt,  two-phase  current  is 
transformed  at  the  power  house  to  three-phase  cur- 
rent at  22,000  volts  and  distributed  on  overhead  bare 
conductors  to  points  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
Niagara  Falls,  such  as  Buffalo,  Tonawanda,  and 
Lockport.  The  three-phase  system  is  also  used  in 
this  case  on  account  of  the  saving  in  copper. 

The  long-distance   transmission  is  operated  over 


8o  The    Niagara    Falls 

three  separate  circuits,  each  having  a  length  to  the 
Buffalo  city  line  of  about  twenty-two  miles.  Two  of 
these  circuits  are  of  350,000  cir.  mil.  stranded  copper 
installed  on  the  same  pole  line.  The  third  circuit  is 
strung  upon  a  separate  pole  line  throughout  its 
entire  length,  and  is  of  aluminum  instead  of  copper. 
This  aluminum  line  has  the  same  resistance  as  each 
of  the  other  two,  and  is  composed  of  three  cables  of 


The  Step-Up  Transformer  Plant  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power 

Company,  Containing  Transformers  Having 

Aggregate  Output  of  60,000  H.  P. 

500,000  cir.  mil.  each,  made  up  of  thirty-seven  strands. 
At  the  present  market  price  of  copper  wire  it  is 
cheaper  to  use  aluminum  for  overhead  lines  where 
the  conductors  do  not  have  to  be  insulated.  The 
conductivity  of  aluminum  is  less  than  copper,  and 
the  price  per  pound  is  greater,  but  the  volume  per 
pound  of  aluminum  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
copper  on  account  of  the  lower  specific  gravity  of 
the  metal.  When,  therefore,  resistance  per  pound 


Electrical    Handbook  81 

is  taken  as  the  basis  for  comparison,  aluminum  is 
found  to  be  cheaper.  Furthermore,  on  account  of 
the  increased  section  of  the  aluminum  conductor  and 
its  greater  lightness,  it  is  better  able  to  resist  span 
strains  due  to  gravity  than  a  copper  conductor  of 
the  same  resistance.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  aluminum  of  which  these  cables  are  made  is  the 
product  of  the  plant  of  the  Pittsburg  Reduction 
Company,  which  is  operated  by  Niagara  power. 

The  capacity  of  the  three  Buffalo  circuits 'is  ap- 
proximately 10,000  h.p.  each  at  22,000  volts. 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  distributing 
system  now  covers  a  very  large  territory;  thousands 
of  people  are  dependent  upon  it  in  their  daily  lives, 
and  commercial  interests  of  great  importance  are 
involved  in  it.  The  industrial  world  has  learned  that 
the  Niagara  power  enterprise  is  no  longer  an  experi- 
ment, and  that  it  has  already  become  an  important 
factor  in  the  manufacturing  status  of  this  continent. 
Its  extent  and  the  great  variety  of  the  industries 
which  it  supplies  will  be  seen  from  the  list  which 
follows: 

THE   NIAGARA  FALLS   POWER   COMPANY- 
LIST  OF  USERS 

NIAGARA  FALLS,  N.  Y. 

Maxi-     Trans  - 
mum     mission 

Name  Power      Dist. 

H.P.      Miles 

The   Pittsburg  Reduction   Company 8,000       0.46 

The    Carborundum    Company 5,000       0.38 

Union   Carbide   Company 1 5,000       2. 

Niagara    Electro-Chemical    Company...   2,000       0.75 

Niagara  Falls  Lighting  Company 1,000       0.14 

International    Railway    Company 1,500 

The  Niagara  Falls  Water  Works  Com- 
pany, hydraulic   power 300 

International  Paper  Company,  hydraulic 

power     8,000 

Castner  Electrolytic  Alkali  Company...    7,000       0.85 


82  The    Niagara    Falls 

Maxi-  Traivs- 

Name  Power  Dist. 

H.P.  Miles 

Niagara  Development  Company 100  1.23 

Oldbury   Electro-Chemical    Company...    1,500  2.18 

Electrical  Lead  Reduction  Company...      500  0.19 

International  Acheson  Graphite   Co....    1,000  0.28 

Acetyvone  Manufacturing  Company....        50  0.95 

Roberts    Chemical    Company 500       1.90 

Francis  Hook  and  Eye  and  Fastener  Co.        15  0.47 

Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company 650  0.95 

The  Natural  Food  Company 1,500  0.66 

Ramapo    Iron   Works 500       1.70 

By-Products   Paper   Company 500  0.19 

Composite  Board  Company 200  0.34 

Atmospheric   Products   Company 50  0.47 

Niagara    Research    Laboratories 500  0.28 

NIAGARA  FALLS,  ONTARIO 

A.  C.  Douglass,  contractor 400       3. 

M.   P.   Davis,  contractor 300       3.7 

A.   C.  Jenckes,  contractor 200       3.5 

The   Carborundum   Company 200       3.6 

Niagara,  St.  Catharines  and  Toronto  Ry.      500       3.8 
Lighting   Company    500       3.4 

TONAWANDA 

International    Railway    Company 1,500 

Tonawanda  Board  and  Paper  Company  1,200  15 

Buffalo  Bolt  Company 160  14 

Philip  Houck  Milling  Company 142  14 

F.  J.  Alliger  Company 107  15 

Adamite    Abrasive    Company 50  14.5 

Orient   Manufacturing   Company 20  14 

Felton   School    22  14 

LOCKPORT 

Lockport   Lighting   Company 500  25 

International   Railway  Company 1,000  26 

OLCOTT 

International   Railway   Company 1,000  39 


Electrical    Handbook 


ISlsffl? 


8 '4  The   N  ia  gar  a   Fall  s 


Maxi-  Trans- 
mum  mission 

Name  Power  Dist. 

H.P  Miles 

Buffalo   Railway   Company 7,000  27 

Buffalo  General  Electric  Company 6,000  27.6 

The  Charles  G.  Curtiss  Company 125  25.5 

McKinnon  Dash  Company 100  24.4 

Pratt   &  Letchworth 233  24.5 

W.  W.  Oliver  Manufacturing  Company.  15  24.7 

Acme  Steel  and  Malleable  Iron  Works.  50  24.8 

N.  Y.  Car  Wheel  Works 200  24.3 

National    Battery    Company 90  26.3 

Standard    Plaster    Company 100  25.5 

Great  Northern  Elevator  Company 900  29.5 

Buffalo   Dry   Dock   Company 133  30 

Electric  Grain  Elevator 200  30.7 

Barcalo  and  Boll  Manufacturing  Co....  60  30 

Schoellkopf  &   Company 50  30 

Iron  Elevator  and  Transfer  Company..  165  30 

Great  Eastern  Elevator 900  30 

Sidney  Shepard  &  Co 100  30 

J.  I.  Prentiss  &  Co 30  29 

Edward   Elsworth   &  Co 150  30 

American  Agricultural   Chemical  Co....  125  32 

Jacob  Dold  Packing  Company 100  32.5 

Empire    Bridge    Company 90  33 

Buffalo    Elevating   Company 950  29 

John  Kam  Malting  Company 225  24.3 

American  Brake  Shoe  and  Foundry  Co.  40  33.2 

Buffalo   Cereal   Company 375  30.3 

Taylor    Signal    Company 65  25.5 

Snow  Steam  Pump  Works 150  33.3 

Wood  &  Brooks  Company 100  24.4 

U.  S.  Rubber  Reclaiming  Works 995  31.7 

American    Radiator    Company 200  24 

Cumpson-Prentiss    Coffee    Company....  30  29.1 

Duffy  Brothers  &  Nellis 50  33.5 

Buffalo  Foundry  Company 240  35.1 

H.    O.    Mills 255  29.3 

Jewett    Manufacturing    Company 30  24.8 


Electrical    Handbook 


86  T  h  c    N  i  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 

Maxi-   Trans- 
mum    mission 

Name  Power     Dist. 

H.P.     Miles 

Buffalo   Pitts  Company 187     35.5 

Buffalo  Brake  Beam  Company 30     25 

Buffalo  Dental  Manufacturing  Company        20     35.5 

Keystone  Manufacturing  Company 25     24.8 

R.  L.  Ginsburgh  &  Sons 33     34 

Buffalo  Weaving  and  Belting  Company        65     25.5 

H.  W.  Dopp  &  Co 10     25 

Frontier   Iron   Works 15     25 

The    Crosby    Company 50     33 

Lackawanna   Steel   Company 70     29.4 

West  Manufacturing  Company 40     28 

Buffalo  Gasoline  Motor  Works 20     25 

Pratt  &  Lambert 10     24.5 

Wegner  Machine   Company 40     29 

Spencer    Kellogg    Company 500     29.2 

Hygiene    Food    Company 300     32.3 

Collins    Baking    Company 50     33.2 

George  Urban   Milling  Company 450     34.5 

Niagara  Mill  and   Elevator  Company...       100     26 

D.  L.  &  W.  R.  R.  Shops 150     34.5 

Ryder  Belt  and  Cordage  Company 65     24.7 

United  States  Headlight  Company 40     26 

George  E.   Laverack  Building 100     28.2 

Buffalo  Structural  Steel   Company 30     26 

J.  N.  Adam  &  Co 100     28.2 

Genesee  Hotel   100     28.1 

The  figures  given  are  for  maximum  power  used 
in  each  case.  Since  the  maximum  in  the  various 
plants  does  not  occur  at  the  same  time,  the  resultant 
maximum  at  the  power  house  is  somewhat  less  than 
their  sum.  At  present  it  amounts  to  about  75,000 
e.h.p. 

On  a  large  system  of  electric  power  distribution, 
such  as  that  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company, 
the  power  users  have  necessarily  widely  differing 
requirements  and  comparatively  few  utilize  the  elec- 
tric current  in  the  exact  form  in  which  it  leaves  the 
terminals  of  the  generators.  A  large  variety  of  sec- 


Electrical   Handbook  87 

ondary  and  tertiary  systems  are  therefore  derived  by 
transformation  and  conversion.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  systems  thus  derived  from  the  primary 
supply  mains  at  2,200  volts,  2-phase,  25-cycles: 

25   CYCLE 

2,200  volts 3-phase 

22,000  volts 3-phase 

1 1,000  volts 3-phase 

4,500  volts 3-phase 

350  volts 3-phase 

350  volts 2-phase 

1 10  volts single-phase 

30  volts single-phase 

60  CYCLE 

2,200  volts 2-phase 

8,000  volts single-phase  (arc). 

no  volts 2-phase 

125  CYCLE 

2,200  volts single-phase 

8,000  volts single-phase  (arc). 

DIRECT  CURRENT 

ioo  volts  130  volts 

160  volts  250  volts 

550  volts  8,000  volts  (arc) 

All  these  systems  are  derived  by  simple  transfor- 
mations by  means  of  transformers,  rotary  converters, 
or  motor-generator  sets. 

Such  then  is  the  present  status  of  the  power 
system  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  and  a 
glance  at  its  past  development  indicates  the  lines 
along  which  it  is  likely  to  grow  in  the  future. 

When  the  Canadian  plant  is  completed  The  Niag- 
ara Falls  Power  Company  and  the  Canadian  Niagara 
Power  Company  will  have  available  three  large 
independent  power  houses  for  the  operation  of  their 
system  and  will  be  the  only  power  companies  hav 
ing  more  than  one  power  house  for  the  protection 
and  assurance  of  continuous  supply  of  power.  This 


88 


The    Niagara    Falls 


is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  customers.  In 
case  of  some  unforeseen  accident  to  any  one  of  the 
plants,  interconnections  can  at  once  be  established 


Interior  of  Power  House  No.  2 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 

so  that  the  most  important  users  of  power  sup- 
plied normally  by  the  disabled  plant  can  be  supplied 
•\vith  power  from  the  other  two  without  interrup- 


Electrical   Handbook  89 

tion.  This  is  especially  important  where  the  public 
utilities  are  involved,  such  as  the  electric  railways 
and  electric  lighting  companies.  As  the  manufac- 
turing arts  advance,  the  element  of  power  becomes 
more  and  more  important  and  cheap  power  there- 
fore more  demanded.  Electro-chemistry  is  a  new 
art,  and  one  which  has  great  possibilities  ahead  of 
it.  The  high  temperatures  obtainable  in  electric 
furnaces  have  opened  up  a  new  field  to  chemical 
synthesis,  and  it  is  likely  that  many  as  yet  undis- 
covered processes,  which  will  require  large  amounts 
of  electrical  power  for  their  operation,  will  be 
brought  to  light.  The  supply  of  power  for  electro- 
chemical purposes  is  especially  desirable  in  a 
water  power  plant  where  large  investment  is  neces- 
sary, for  the  power  used  by  these  processes  is  prac- 
tically constant  for  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day, 
thus  tending  to  reduce  load  "peaks"  on  the  total 
station  output. 

The  economical  distance  to  which  power  can  be 
transmitted  extends  every  year  as  the  general  de- 
mand for  power  increases  and  methods  of  handling 
high  voltages  improve,  and  the  electric  equipment 
of  steam  railway  systems,  which  is  certain  to  come 
in  time,  will  open  up  a  further  field  for  the  long- 
distance transmission  of  large  amounts  of  power 
from  a  central  point. 

All  these  tendencies  in  industrial  conditions,  which 
have  been  mentioned,  result  in  an  accelerating  de- 
mand for  power  from  Niagara  Falls. 


90  The    Niagara    Falls 


1893—1903 

The  Carborundum  Company 


Local  Tenants  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company 

THE   CARBORUNDUM   COMPANY 

THIS  company  takes  its  electrical  power  from 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company.     It  lo- 
cated  at    Niagara   in    1895,   having  been    the 
second  customer  to  make  a  contract  with  the 
Power  Company. 


1000  II.  I>.  Transformer  with  Induction  Regulator 
The  Carborundum  Company 

The  Carborundum  Company  manufactures,  under 
the  trade-mark  of  "carborundum,"  silicon  carbide 
and  its  by-products. 

Carborundum  is  a  chemical  combination  of  car- 
bon .and  silicon,  which  elements  are  obtained  from 
coke  and  sand;  these  materials  being  fused  in  an 
electric  furnace  at  an  estimated  temperature  of 
about  7,000°  fahr. 


92  The    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 

The  Carborundum  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1891,  and  carried  on  its  earlier  operations  at  Monon- 
gahela,  Pa.,  where  furnaces  using  120  e.  h.  p.  were 
employed,  the  electrical  energy  being  developed  by 
generators  driven  by  steam. 


Furnace  Ready  for  Burning 

Furnace  During  Burning 
The  Carborundum  Company 

On  locating  at  Niagara  Falls  in  1895,  the  first 
installation  was  a  unit  of  five  furnaces,  these  being 
operated  successively  one  at  a  time.  The  current 
used  was  i.ooo  e.  h.  p.,  received  on  the  premises  of 
the  company  at  2,200  volts  and  transformed  down 
to  150  volts,  from  which  point  it  could  be  regulated 
in  one-half  volt  steps  between  100  and  200  volts.  At 
the  time  of  the  installation  the  transforming  ap- 
paratus was  the  largest  in  the  world. 


Electrical   Handbook  93 

In  1899  a  second,  and  in  1902  a  third  unit  of  1,000 
e.  h.  p.  were  put  into  operation;  the  transforming 
apparatus  being  of  practically  the  same  type  as  that  of 
the  first  unit. 

In  April,  1904,  2,000  additional  e.  h.  p.  were  taken 
on.  This  is  used  as  one  unit,  handled  through  one 
transformer  and  regulator,  which  is  believed  to  be 
the  largest  regulated  transformer  in  the  world. 

The  Carborundum  Company  is  now  using  three 
units  of  1 ,000  e.  h.  p.  and  one  unit  of  2,000  e.  h.  p., 
which  are  used  continuously  twenty-four  hours  per 
day  and  365  days  per  year. 

The  company's  plant  covers  eight  acres  of  ground 
and  consists  of  a  series  of  brick  buildings  having  a 


Furnace  Aft 
The  Carborundum  Company 

total  floor  space  of  221,009  square  feet,  and  being 
especially  adapted  to  the  various  purposes  of  crush- 
ing and  mixing  raw  materials,  operating  furnaces, 
grinding,  washing  and  sifting  the  carborundum,  and 
of  making  the  carborundum  into  the  various  market- 
able forms  of  wheels,  stones,  paper,  cloth,  etc. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  caborundum  are 
hardness,  brittleness,  infusibility  and  insolubility. 
In  hardness  carborundum  ranks  next  to  the  dia- 
mond; and  this,  with  its  other  properties,  makes  it 
peculiarly  adaptable  to  its  principal  use  as  an  abra- 
sive or  grinding  material. 


94  The    X  i  a  gar  a    Falls 

Other  uses  to  which  carborundum  has  been  put 
are  for  furnace  linings  and  for  various  refractory 
purposes  where  a  great  heat  resistance  is  required; 
and  for  increasing  the  fluidity  of  molten  metals,  or 
adding  to  their  silicon  content. 

Quite  recently  the  company  has  produced  large 
quantities  of  pure  metallic  silicon.  This  metal, 
which  now  sells  as  a  laboratory  curiosity  at  $7.00 
per  ounce,  can  be  manufactured  in  unlimited  quanti- 
ties at  approximately  25  cents,  or  one  shilling  per 
pound. 

UNION  CARBIDE  COMPANY 

THE  plant  of  the  Union  Carbide  Company  is 
one  of  the  largest  on  the   lands  of  the   Ni- 
agara  Falls   Power   Company.     It  is  located 
about    one    and    one-half    miles    east    of    the 
power  stations,  the  site  occupying  about  eight  acres. 
The    buildings    are    of   brick    and    steel,    covering    a 
space  over  200  feet  wide  and  more  than  880  feet  long. 
In  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide,  the  raw 
materials  used  are  burnt  lime  and  ground  coke,  the 
proportions  of  these   materials  being  about  one  of 
lime    to    two-thirds    of    coke.     The    temperature    at 
which  calcium  carbide  is  formed  is  very  high  com- 
pared with  metallurgical  electric-furnace  work,  and 
is  far  higher  than  can  be  obtained  in  the  ordinary 
combustible-heated   furnace.     It    is,    however,   below 
the  temperature  used  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
graphite,   siloxicon  or  carborundum. 

The  power  supply  of  the  Union  Carbide  Company 
is  transmitted  to  the  works  over  cables  laid  in  an 
underground  conduit.  The  company  uses  alternat- 
ing current  at  2,250  volts.  At  present  approximately 
15,000  h.p.  is  used.  In  the  works  the  company  has 
installed  ten  2,ooo-h.p.  transformers,  and  two  5OO-h.p. 
transformers,  as  well  as  about  40  motors  ranging 
from  one  to  200  h.p. 

There  are  72  furnaces,  more  than  50  of  which  are  in 
operation.  These  furnaces  are  circular  in  form  and  of 


Electrical    Handbook  95 


9<5  The    Niagara    Falls 

iron,  each  having  a  recessed  rim,  to  the  top  of  which  are 
bolted  segmental  wings.  In  the  space  thus  formed  two 
carbons  are  placed  at  the  top  of  a  wheel.  The  charge 
of  lime  and  carbon  there  fed  to  them  is  fused  by 
the  arc  formed  by  the  current  passing  from  one  car- 
bon to  the  other.  The  furnace  revolves  slowly  on 
trunnions,  making  an  entire  turn  once  in  forty-eight 
hours,  and  the  fluid  carbide  resulting  from  the  action 
of  the  arc,  as  above  described,  is  thus  taken  out  of 
the  field  and  solidifies.  The  ingots  are  taken  from 
the  lower  side  of  the  wheel  comparatively  cold,  and 
from  24  to  30  inches  thick.  In  diameter  the  furnaces 
are  about  ten  feet,  each  furnace  taking  about  2,000 
amperes  at  no  volts,  or  about  300  h.p.,  to  operate 
it.  The  output  of  each  furnace  is  about  one  ton  per 
day. 

The  Niagara  Falls  plant  of  the  Union  Carbide 
Company  is  known  as  Plant  No.  i,  and  was  erected 
in  1899.  Plant  No.  2  is  located  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
Mich.  The  site  at  the  "Soo"  covers  ten  acres,  and  the 
buildings  are  even  larger  than  those  at  Niagara  Falls,  one 
having  a  length  of  725  feet  with  a  width  of  75  feet, 
while  another  is  680  feet  long  and  75  feet  wide.  At 
the  "Soo''  the  company  has  a  contract  for  20,000 
h.p.,  and  owns  its  own  electric  generating  plant,  as 
well  as  a  lime  burning  plant.  An  interesting  point 
in  connection  with  the  "Soo"  works  is  that  all  the 
coke  and  coal  used  is  secured  during  the  summer 
season  when  lake  navigation  is  open. 

Calcium  carbide  and  the  great  industry  that  has 
developed  through  its  manufacture  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  an  accidental  discovery  made  in  1892  at  an 
aluminum  works  in  Spray,  N.  C.  At  that  time  an  effort 
was  being  made  to  reduce  lime  by  carbon  in  order  to 
make  calcium,  which  it  was  hoped  would  prove 
an  aid  in  the  reduction  of  aluminum.  While  these 
experiments  were  in  progress,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  carbide  product  gave  off  an  inflammable 
gas  when  it  came  in  contact  with  water.  An  analy- 
sis resulted  in  its  recognition  as  calcium  carbide,  an 


Electrical   Handbook 


97 


article  of  great  commercial  value.  Later  its  manu- 
facture was  begun  on  a  commercial  scale,  and  to-day 
the  Union  Carbide  Company,  which  controls  calcium 
carbide  manufacture  in  the  United  States,  has  ware- 
houses in  forty  cities  and  its  main  offices  in  New 
York  City  and  Chicago. 


Ingots  of  Calcium  Carbide 
Union  Carbide  Company 

Calcium  carbide  furnishes  upwards  of  five  cubic 
feet  of  acetylene  gas  per  pound.  This  gas  burns  with 
a  soft,  steady,  brilliant  flame,  and  its  use  is  now  very 
extensive.  It  has  won  favor  for  town  lighting  and 
is  utilized  in  illuminating  large  buildings,  houses,  and 
grounds.  Its  use  in  portable  lamps  is  very  extensive. 


9<?  The    Niagara    Falls 

BUFFALO  AND  NIAGARA  FALLS  ELECTRIC 
LIGHT  AND  POWER  COMPANY 

THE  Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Company  acts  as  a  distributing 
agent  of  Niagara  power  in  the  city  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  supplies  current  for  all  commer- 
cial and  municipal  lighting.  The  company's  station 
is  located  on  Fourteenth  street,  near  Buffalo  avenue, 
and  receives  through  underground  cables,  2-phase, 
25-cycle  current  at  a  potential  of  2,200  volts  from 
The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company.  Westinghouse 
induction  motors,  direct  connected  to  General  Elec- 
tric rotary  field  generators,  transform  this  current 
to  single-phase,  2,200  volts,  125-cycles,  for  use  in 
both  arc  and  incandescent  lighting  of  the  southern 
and  central  portions  of  the  city.  The  municipal 
street  lighting  is  accomplished  by  means  of  7^2  am- 
pere, series,  alternating,  arc  lamps  operated  from 
constant  current  transformers,  and  the  commercial 
lighting  from  single-phase,  primary  circuits  which 
are  stepped  down  from  2,200  volts  to  108  volts.  Di- 
rect current  for  power  purposes  is  delivered  at  500 
volts,  and  is  obtained  from  air-blast  transformers  in 
connection  with  synchronous  converters. 

Three-phase,     25-cycle,     alternating     current     for 
power  purposes  will  be  distributed  from  this  station 

volts. 

he  company  has  a  rotary  field,  single-phase 
alternator  directly  connected  to  an  I.  P.  Morris 
turbine  in  the  plant  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Hydraulic 
Power  and  Manufacturing  Company.  The  output 
of  this  generator  is  distributed  single-phase  at  2,200 
volts  for  commercial  lighting  in  the  northern  section 
of  the  city. 


Electrical   Handbook 


99 


TOO  The    Niagara    Falls 

THE  NIAGARA  FALLS  WATER  WORKS 
COMPANY 

ALTHOUGH  a  small  user  of  power,  The  Ni- 
agara Falls  Water  Works  Company  is  one  of 
the  most  important  clients  of  The  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company.  The  entire  southerly 
half  of  the  city  is  supplied  with  water  for  domestic 
and  manufacturing  purposes  from  the  plant  located 
near  the  southerly  end  of  the  Power  Company's 
canal.  This  district  includes  all  of  the  large  manu- 
facturing plants  located  in  the  upper  power  district. 
As  a  reliable  supply  of  water  is  essential  to  the  pro- 
cesses of  many  of  these  plants,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  importance  of  the  water  works  is  second  only 
to  that  of  the  power  plant  itself.  Foreseeing  the 
necessity  of  a  water  supply  other  than  that  of  the 
municipal  plant,  which  supplies  the  other  end  of 
the  city,  The  Niagara  .Falls  Power  Company  early 
interested  itself  in  the  private  plant,  held  a  con- 
trolling interest  in  it  for  a  number  of  years,  and  sup- 
plied all  the  necessary  capital  for  extensions,  but 
after  the  mains  had  been  extended  so  as  to  assure 
a  proper  water  supply  for  manufacturing  purposes 
and  fire  protection  for  all  its  tenant  companies,  the 
Power  Company  sold  the  water  works  plant  in  1903 
to  the  Western  New  York  Water  Company  of  Buf- 
falo, and  the  Power  Company  has  no  longer  any 
interest  in  the  plant  except  as  a  tenant  company. 

A  few  mains  had  been  laid  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  village  of  Niagara  Falls  as  early  as  1877,  but 
it  was  not  until  1892  that  the  main  arteries  were  laid 
and  connected  to  a  new  pumping  station,  and  to  a 
standpipe  located  at  a  high  elevation.  One  of  the 
most  important  mains  then  laid  was  that  extending 
past  the  principal  factory  sites  to  the  industrial 
village  then  being  built  at  Echota.  The  marvelous 
growth  of  the  city  has  necessitated  numerous  exten- 
sions of  the  earlier  system,  until  at  the  present  time 
the  Water  Works  Company  has  nearly  twenty-five 


Electrical   Handbook  101 

miles  of  mains,  thus  adding  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
prosperity  of  industrial  Niagara. 

The  growth  of  the  pumping  plant  has  been  com- 
mensurate with  the  demands  brought  upon  it.  Com- 
mencing in  1892  with  a  small  wooden  building  hous- 
ing three  100  h.  p.  boilers  and  two  3,000,000  gallon 
compound  duplex  steam  pumps,  a  handsome  brick 
building  78  by  142  feet  was  erected  in  1895-96.  Realiz- 
ing the  necessity  of  furnishing  pure  and  wholesome 
water  The  Niagara  Falls  Water  Works  Company 
installed  in  this  building  a  mechanical  nitration  plant 
of  the  Morrison-Jewell  type,  having  a  rated  capacity 
of  4,500,000  gallons  per  day,  complete  with  all  acces- 
sories. Water  taken  from  the  canal  of  The  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  is  raised  to  the  top  of  the 
filters  by  centrifugal  pumps,  direct-connected  to  elec- 
tric motors.  After  being  filtered  the  water  flows 
to  a  clear  water  basin,  from  which  it  is  taken  to  the 
pump  suction. 

Finding  the  capacity  of  its  pumping  plant  over- 
taxed, and  realizing  the  superiority  of  water  to  steam 
as  a  motive  power,  the  Water  Works  Company  in 
1900  installed  in  wheelpit  No.  I  of  The  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  two  6,000,000  gallon  Riedler  pump- 
ing engines,  direct-connected  to  400  h.  p.  Pelton 
water-wheels.  These  pumps  are  installed  in  cham- 
bers 16  by  35  feet  cut  from  the  solid  rock,  the  head 
of  water  upon  the  wheels  being  about  120  feet. 
Such  an  installation  was  somewhat  novel,  but  has 
proven  entirely  successful,  requiring  but  a  minimum 
of  repairs.  As  up  to  the  present  time  the  city  has 
no  steam  fire  engines  it  was  necessary  that  the  pumps 
should  be  capable  of  a  sudden  increase  of  pressure 
on  the  mains  in  case  of  fire.  This  is  accomplished 
by  providing  each  wheel  with  two  nozzles,  one  of 
which  is  ordinarily  employed,  while  the  other  is  used 
only  in  case  of  fire.  By  this  means  the  pressure  can 
be  practically  doubled  in  less  than  two  minutes,  or 
before  the  fire  department  reaches  the  scene  of  the 
fire.  An  unusual  feature  of  these  pumps  is  that  they 


io2  The    Niagara    Falls 

operate  under  a  suction  head  of  about  120  feet  from 
the  main  connected  with  the  clear  water  basin  at 
the  nitration  plant.  The  loss  in  head  due  to  the 
location  of  the  pumps  in  the  wheelpit  is,  therefore, 
only  that  due  to  the  frictional  losses  in  the  pipes  as 
the  water  flows  to  and  from  the  pumps. 

To  measure  the  water  pumped,  a  24-inch  Venturi 
meter  has  been  installed.  To  this  is  attached  the 
first  automatic  recording  device  ever  placed  in  com- 
mercial service.  This  device  indicates  every  ten 
minutes  the  rate  of  pumping.  The  pumping  plant 
is  of  up-to-date  construction  in  all  respects  and 
corresponds  with  the  industrial  progress  everywhere 
apparent  in  the  principal  power  centre  of  the  country. 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  PAPER  COMPANY 

A  SMALL  portion  of  the  water  diverted  from  the 
upper  river  by  the   Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany is  used  to  operate  the  Niagara  Falls  Mill  of 
the  International  Paper  Company,  which  is  lo- 
cated on  a  site  reclaimed  from  the  river  west  of  Power 
House  No.  i.     This  Company  has  built  its  own  wheelpit, 
and  the  discharge  from  its  turbines  reaches  the  main 
tunnel  through  a  lateral  tunnel  7  feet  in  diameter  and  600 
feet  long. 

The  International  Paper  Company  was  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York'  January  28, 
1898.  It  acquired  at  the  time  of  its  incorporation  almost 
all  the  important  mills  which  manufacture  news  paper  in 
the  Eastern  States,  and,  since  its  incorporation,  it  has  ac- 
quired by  purchase  several  additional  paper  and  pulp 
mills,  wood  lands,  water-powers  and  other  properties. 
Its  manufacturing  plants,  water-powers  and  wood  lands 
are  located  in  the  States  of  New  York,  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  and  in 
Canada.  It  also  owns  a  controlling  interest  in  the  fol- 
lowing companies :  The  Continental  Paper  Bag  Com- 
pany, Rumford  Falls,  Me.,  which  has  a  capacity  for  mak- 
ing upwards  of  12,000,000  bags  per  day ;  the  St.  Maurice 


Electrical    Handbook  103 


104  The   Niagara   Falls 

Lumber  Company,  which  conducts  wood  operations  and 
operates  saw  mills  in  Canada,  having  a  capacity  of  30,- 
000,000  feet  of  lumber  per  year,  in  addition  to  handling 
pulp  wood  which  is  imported  into  the  States  for  the  use 
of  some  of  the  mills  of  the  company ;  the  American 
Realty  Company,  which  owns  wood  lands  and  conducts 
wood  operations  in  Maine ;  the  Michigan  Pulp  Wood 
Company,  which  conducts  wood  operations  in  Michigan 
and  Central  Canada,  amounting  to  27,000,000  feet  per 
year;  the  American  Sulphite  Pulp  Company,  which  con- 
trols the  most  valuable  patents  connected  with  the  pro- 
cess of  making  sulphite  pulp ;  and  the  Winnipiseogee 
Lake  Cotton  and  Woolen  Company,  which  owns  hy- 
draulic developments  controlling  headwaters  of  the  Mer- 
rimac  River.  It  also  controls  other  companies  owning 
wood  lands,  water-powers  and  valuable  franchises. 

The  authorized  capital  stock  of  the  company  is  $25,- 
000,000  preferred,  of  which  $22406,700  is  issued,  and 
$20,000,000  common,  of  which  $17,442,800  is  issued. 

In  considering  the  application  of  Niagara  power  to 
paper-making  it  is  most  interesting  and  instructive  to 
note  that  before  paper  came  into  existence,  many  other 
materials,  among  them  stone,  metals  and  clay,  had  been 
used  to  preserve  the  records  of  the  past.  Then  came 
papyrus,  the  connecting  link  between  such  crude  mate- 
rials and  what  might  properly  be  called  "paper."  Papy- 
rus was  the  pith  of  an  ancient  Egyptian  plant — the  bul- 
rush of  the  Nile — cut  into  strips  or  ribbons,  laid  side  by 
side  crosswise,  and  pressed  together;  whereas  the  most 
distinctive  feature  of  what  we  know  as  paper  is  that  the 
original  structure  of  the  material  from  which  it  is  made 
is  destroyed  by  making  it  into  pulp,  the  fibres  then  being 
reconstructed  into  sheet  form. 

It  is  probable  that  paper,  as  thus  distinguished,  orig- 
inated in  China  about  150  A.  D.  Several  centuries  after- 
wards the  Arabs,  during  their  conflicts  with  the  Chinese, 
learned  the  art  of  paper-making;  from  the  Arabs  in  turn 
that  knowledge  was  gained  by  the  Crusaders,  and  thus 
the  art  was  introduced  into  western  Europe  by  way  of 
Syria,  Palestine  and  Byzantium.  On  the  other  hand,  the 


Electrical   Handbook  105 

Arabs,  in  their  conquests  of  Spain,  carried  the  practice 
of  paper-making  to  that  country,  so  that  it  reached  Eu- 
rope through  two  avenues.  France  first  learned  to  make 
paper  in  1189  A.  D.,  and  England  not  until  two  or  three 
hundred  years  later. 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  method 
of  making  paper  had  been  practically  the  same  the  world 
over  and  the  same  as  practiced  originally  by  the  Chinese, 
fibrous  materials  being  beaten  into  a  pulp,  which,  mixed 
with  water,  was  moulded  into  sheets,  all  by  direct  manual 
labor;  but  in  1804,  a  machine,  which  had  been  invented 
in  France  a  few  years  before,  was  put  into  successful  op- 
eration in  England.  The  machine  bears  the  name,  to 
this  day,  of  the  original  makers,  "Fourdrinier,"  not  that 
of  the  inventor,  Roberts. 

This  machine  multiplied  the  productive  capacity  of 
labor  a  thousandfold,  and  produced  a  continuous  web  of 
paper  instead  of  single  sheets.  Fundamentally,  the  pro- 
cess to-day  is  the  same  as  it  has  been  for  the  past  cent- 
ury, although  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
machinery,  very  radical  changes  in  the  raw  material  and 
vast  progress  in  the  rapidity  and  scale  of  manufacture. 

Paper,  like  all  other  fabrics,  is  divided  into  different 
classes,  depending  mainly  upon  the  use  to  which  it  is  put. 
Broadly  speaking,  paper  is  used  for  three  purposes ;  writ- 
ing, printing,  and  mechanical,  such  as  wrapping.  Print- 
ing paper  is  the  most  important  class.  This  may  be  fur- 
ther divided  into  paper  for  printing  newspaper  and  paper 
for  printing  books  and  other  publications,  although  there 
is  no  hard  and  fast  line  between  the  two  grades.  The 
newspapers  consume  one-quarter  of  all  the  paper  manu- 
factured in  this  country.  News  paper  is  the  principal 
product  of  the  International  Paper  Company  and  the  ex- 
clusive product  of  its  Niagara  Falls  mill. 

Uritil  the  last  half  century,  practically  all  kinds  of 
paper  had  been  made  from  rags ;  but  since  then,  various 
inventions  have  led  to  the  almost  complete  substitution 
of  wood  fibres  in  the  making  of  many  grades,  especially 
news  paper.  These  inventions  related  to  the  processes 
by  which  vegetable  fibrous  substances  from  their  natural 


106  The    Niagara    Falls 

state  are  transformed  into  pulp.  The  processes  are  me- 
chanical and  chemical. 

The  mechanical  process  consists  essentially  in  disin- 
tegrating wood  by  grinding;  thereby  the  whole  structure 
of  the  wood,  except  the  bark,  is  reduced  to  pulp. 

The  chemical  process  which  is  used  in  making  news 
paper  is  known  as  the  "sulphite"  process,  and  consists  of 
treating  wood  with  a  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  in 
water,  heated  in  a  closed  vessel  under  pressure  sufficient 
to  retain  the  acid  gas,  until  the  inter-cellular  matter  is 
dissolved,  leaving  the  fibres  intact. 

Mechanical  or  ground  wood  pulp,  although  invented 
in  Germany  in  1844,  was  first  made  by  the  present  pro- 
cess in  this  country  in  1867,  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.  The 
sulphite  process  was  invented  in  America  in  1867,  and  the 
first  sulphite  pulp  made  in  the  United  States  was  made 
in  1884  at  Providence,  R.  I.  Pulp  prepared  in  these  two 
ways  is  the  basis  of  most  of  the  news  paper  made  in  this 
country. 

Paper  was  made  in  America  first  in  1690  at  German- 
town,  Pa.,  by  William  Rittenhouse.  To-day  the  United 
States  manufactures  more  news  paper,  as  well  as  more 
paper  in  general,  than  any  other  country  in  the  world, 
and  also  more  per  capita,  which  is  of  much  significance, 
since  it  is  said,  "The  consumption  of  paper  is  the  meas- 
ure of  a  people's  culture." 

There  are  in  operation  in  the  United  States  1,178 
paper  and  pulp  mills,  and  their  annual  output  of  paper  is 
about  2,500,000  tons,  which  is  estimated  to  be  worth  upon 
the  market  not  less  than  $200,000,000.  It  may  aid  to  a 
conception  of  what  this  means  to  say  that  the  quantity 
of  paper  produced  annually  in  the  United  States  is  400.- 
ooo  tons  more  than  the  annual  production  of  cotton  in 
the  United  States  and  four  times  the  annual  consump- 
tion, being  equal  to  the  annual  consumption  in  the  United 
States  of  all  kinds  of  fibres,  including  cotton,  wool,  jute, 
flax.  etc. 

Regarded  as  a  whole,  the  mills  of  the  International 
Paper  Company  balance  each  other  so  that  any  lack  in 
one  respect  at  one  mill  is  offset  by  a  corresponding  ad- 


Electrical   Handbook  107 

vantage  at  another.  The  properties  of  the  company, 
however,  are  so  scattered  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  com- 
prehensive idea  of  them  or  to  appreciate  their  extent.  It 
may  be  well  to  describe  them  as  though  they  were  all 
consolidated  into  one  property ;  in  other  words,  to  imag- 
ine a  composite  picture  of  them  all  and,  where  possible, 
to  reduce  them  to  the  still  more  concrete  form  of  statis- 
tics. As  in  other  kinds  of  manufacturing,  it  is  essential 
that  paper  mills  should  be  located,  not  only  with  refer- 
ence to  cheap  power  and  labor,  but  near  the  source  of 
the  principal  materials  used.  An  outline  sketch  of  news 
paper-making  will  serve  to  connect  these  facts. 

As  wood  is  the  most  important  component  of  news 
paper,  it  will  be  interesting  to  consider  the  resources  of 
the  company  in  respect  to  that  material.  It  comes  first 
from  the  lands  which  the  company  owns  in  fee,  which 
let  us  regard  as  one  tract  of  forest  containing  nearly 
900,000  acres.  Another  source  is  lands,  the  timber  on 
which  has  been  sold  to  the  company  under  contracts  ex- 
tending over  long  terms.  These  contracts  cover  the 
wood  upon  a  tract  of  about  200,000  acres.  A  third  source 
is  wood  lands  in  Canada,  on  which  the  company  has  the 
exclusive  right  to  operate.  These  amount  to  about 
1,730,000  acres.  All  these  three  sources  together  are 
equivalent  to  a  tract  one  mile  wide  and  about  4,000  miles 
long,  which  would  reach  from  Newfoundland  to  New 
York,  and  thence  to  San  Francisco.  In  addition  the  com- 
pany buys  a  large  portion  of  its  supply  in  the  open  mar- 
ket, thus  conserving  its  own  resources.  The  wood  is 
conveyed  to  the  mills  either  by  driving  in  the  river  or  by 
rail.  If  shipped  by  rail,  the  annual  supply  would  fill 
63,500  freight  cars,  making  a  train  480  miles  long. 

Imagine  a  mammoth  paper  mill  operated  by  150,000 
horse  power,  which  would  be  45,000  horse  power  more 
than  is  developed  in  the  two  power  houses  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company.  This  amount  of  energy  rented 
at  $18  per  year  for  a  twelve-hour  day  would  represent  a 
rental  of  $5,400,000,  or  ten  per  cent,  on  $54,000,000.  Then 
add  to  this  picture  another  100,000  horse  power,  repre- 
senting the  undeveloped  water-powers  of  the  company, 


io8  The    Niagara    Falls 

held  in  reserve,  which  if  developed  would  represent  an 
additional  asset  of  $36,000,000.  Stretching  away  from 
the  mill  on  either  side  would  be  6,300  acres  of  farm  land 
which  the  company  now  possesses  along  the  banks  of  va- 
rious rivers  to  give  flowage  and  other  riparian  rights. 

The  principal  mill  buildings,  built  of  brick,  stone  and 
iron,  and  of  the  most  substantial  construction,  would 
cover  an  area  equal  to  that  between  Forty-second  street 
and  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  from  Fifth  to  Sixth 
avenues,  in  the  same  city,  and  surrounding  them  would 
be  many  stores,  houses  and  miscellaneous  buildings. 
Hundreds  of  dwellings  and  tenements  would  be  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  picture,  all  belonging  to  the  com- 
pany. 

The  power  to  operate  this  wonderful  mill  would  be 
derived  from  702  water  wheels,  ranging  from  80  to  1,300 
horse  power  each.  In  addition  to  this  there  would  be  a 
steam  power  plant  consisting  of  a  battery  of  295  boilers. 
These  boilers  consume  443,000  tons  of  coal  per  year,  and 
produce  steam  for  driving  196  steam  engines,  which  de- 
velop 26,511  horse  power.  These,  however,  require  not 
more  than  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  steam  developed,  the 
greater  part  being  used  for  drying  the  paper.  For  every 
pound  of  paper  made  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  water 
must  be  raised  from  normal  temperature  to  the  point  of 
evaporation,  and  this  would  amount  to  evaporating  nearly 
4,000  tons  of  water  every  twenty-four  hours.  Steam  is 
also  used  for  cooking  the  wood  in  the  sulphite  digesters, 
for  heating  the  plants  during  the  winter  and  for  various 
minor  purposes. 

Let  us  return  to  the  point  where  the  wood  is  brought 
into  the  mill,  both  for  making  ground  wood  and  sulphite. 
We  see  the  logs  sawed  into  convenient  lengths.  The 
bark  is  then  removed  by  machines  called  "barkers,"  which 
are  rapidly  revolving  disks  having  many  radial  knives. 
If  arranged  in  a  single  row,  with  the  customary  space 
between  them,  these  "barkers"  would  extend  1,700  feet. 
Just  here  the  preparation  of  the  wood  differs,  according 
as  it  is  intended  for  the  ground  wood  mill  or  the  sulphite 
mill.  If  for  the  former,  the  wood  goes  directly  to  the 


Electrical   Handbook 


109 


mill  after  passing  through  some  minor  processes ;  if  for 
the  latter,  it  is  introduced  to  the  "chippers,"  which  con- 
sist of  revolving  knives  set  at  such  an  angle  that  they  cut 
the  wood  into  small  chips.  The  chips  are  then  conveyed 
mechanically  to  storage  bins,  ready  for  the  digesters. 

Entering  the  ground  wood  pulp  mill  we  see  an  array 
of  416  pulp  "grinders,"  attached  directly  to  the  shafts  of 
the  water  wheels,  and  requiring  a  room  one  mile  long  if 
arranged  one  grinder  on  a  shaft.  These  grinders  on  an 


Grinder  and  Screen  Room 
The  International  Paper  Company 

average  require  300  horse  power  each,  making  a  total  of 
124,800  horse  power.  By  these  grinders  the  wood  is 
ground  into  pulp,  which,  mixed  with  water,  passes  on  to 
the  "screens,"  numbering  765.  The  screening  or  strain- 
ing process  is  to  remove  the  coarse  pieces  of  wood.  After 
being  screened,  the  pulp,  amounting  to  1,100  tons  every 
twenty-four  hours,  either  passes  to  the  presses,  by  which 
a  greater  part  of  the  water  is  extracted;  or  the  liquid 
pulp  is  pumped  into  storage  tanks,  ready  for  mixing  with 
the  other  ingredients  of  the  paper. 


no 


The    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 


A  visit  to  the  sulphite  mill  will  be  most  interesting. 
In  the  sulphur  storehouse  there  are  frequently  stored 
4,500  tons  of  sulphur  or  brimstone.  This  sulphur  is 
burned  in  ovens  at  the  rate  of  20,000  tons  a  year,  and  the 
fumes  are  combined  with  other  chemicals  to  produce  the 
liquor  in  which  the  wood  is  cooked.  The  other  principal 
ingredient  of  the  liquor  is  lime.  Of  lime  about  20,000 
tons  are  used  every  year.  The  lime,  water  and  sulphur 
fumes  are  mingled  and  make  sulphurous  acid,  which  is 


Digesters 
The  International  Paper  Company 

stored  in  tanks  in  readiness  for  use  in  the  process  of 
cooking  the  wood.  From  these  tanks  the  liquor  is 
drawn  to  the  "digesters,"  which  are  huge  steel  boiler-like 
structures  standing  on  end,  and  lined  in  various  ways 
with  cement  and  lead  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  acid  and 
to  withstand  steam  pressure.  There  are  fifty-eight  of 
these,  ranging  in  height  from  twenty-seven  to  forty- 
seven  feet,  with  a  total  cubical  contents  of  780,000  gal- 
lons. 


Electrical    Handbook 


in 


Every  nine  hours  on  the  average,  these  digesters  are 
filled  with  chips  and  sulphite  liquor  and  the  contents  are 
emptied  at  like  intervals,  the  wood  having  been  reduced 
to  a  pulpy  state  by  the  process  of  cooking.  This  sub- 
stance is  screened  and  pressed  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  used  in  treating  the  ground  wood.  From  the  presses 
415  tons  of  sulphite  pulp  are  taken  off  every  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  takes  us  into  the  paper 


Paper  Machine 
The  International  Paper  Company 

mill,  where  the  ingredients  of  paper  are  assembled.  In 
an  immense  room  there  are  282  beating  engines  of  an 
average  capacity  of  3,200  gallons.  In  these  are  mixed 
the  ground  wood,  sulphite  pulp  and  various  chemicals. 
It  requires  100  tons  of  concentrated  coloring  matter, 
10,500  barrels  of  rosin  and  4,628  tons  of  alum  per  year  to 
color  and  "size"  the  product  of  the  International  Paper 
Company. 

This  stock,  in  a  liquid  form,  finally  reaches  in  paper 


ii2  The    Niagara    Falls 

machines,  which  range  in  length  from  125  to  225  feet,  and 
from  which,  day  and  night,  is  reeled  off  a  total  of  1,600  to 
1,700  tons  of  paper  in  twenty-four  hours.  These  paper 
machines  are  massive  in  construction,  but  of  the  finest 
adjustment.  If  made  into  a  strip  the  width  of  the  aver- 
age daily  newspaper,  this  daily  output  of  the  combined 
mills  of  this  company  would  form  a  ribbon  long  enough 
to  encircle  the  earth. 

As  it  comes  from  the  machines,  the  paper  is  mostly 
finished  or  wrapped  in  the  form  of  rolls,  varying  in 
weight  from  300  to  1,500  pounds  each.  Some  of  the 
product  is  cut  into  sheets  and  wrapped  into  bundles. 
Merely  to  wrap  the  paper  requires  annually  more  than 
8,oco  tons  of  wrappers,  which  are  made  by  the  company. 

It  is  well  understood  that  in  supplying  the  daily  pa- 
pers all  over  the  world,  their  fluctuating  demands  should 
be  responded  to  promptly,  and  therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
carry  in  store  at  the  mills,  on  an  average,  15,000  tons  of 
paper  in  addition  to  the  stock  carried  at  all  important 
points  of  delivery,  which  is  even  a  larger  quantity.  To 
get  to  market  in  one  train  the  total  output  of  paper  dur- 
ing one  year,  which  amounts  to  450,000  tons,  would  re- 
quire 22,500  cars. 

It  is  of  this  vast  and  thoroughly  organized  business 
that  the  big  paper  mill  of  Niagara  Falls  is  an  important 
factor.  When  the  development  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company  was  commenced,  the  river  washed  the 
site  where  the  mill  now  stands,  but  in  response  to  the 
demands  of  industry  the  river  was  crowded  back  to  make 
room  for  this  plant.  The  buildings  are  all  of  brick,  some 
two  stories  and  some  three  stories  high.  Five  acres  of 
ground  are  covered,  and  to  the  west  of  the  mill  there  is  a 
spacious  wood  yard. 

The  wheelpit  of  the  mill  is  28  feet  wide,  56  feet  long 
and  165  feet  deep.  In  it  are  installed  six  water-wheels, 
three  of  which  have  an  individual  capacity  of  1,100  horse 
power,  while  each  of  the  other  three  develops  1,300  horse 
power,  making  the  total  power  of  the  mill  over  7,000 
horse  power.  The  mill  has  six  paper  machines,  five  of 
which  are  120  inches  wide,  and  the  sixth  136  inches  wide. 


Electrical   Handbook  7/3 

The  plant  is  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  news  paper, 
the  output  being  140  tons  a  day.  Of  ground  wood  65 
tons  are  made  daily  and  a  further  capacity  is  projected. 
There  is  also  a  daily  output  of  42  tons  of  sulphite. 

In  addition  to  the  water  power  referred  to,  the  mill 
has  a  steam  plant  of  2,600  horse  power,  which  is  used 
mainly  for  drying  purposes.  It  has  its  own  electric  light 
installation  in  two  6oo-horse-power  electric  generators, 
while  for  operating  its  wood  conveyors  two  3O-horse- 
power  motors  are  used.  Possibly  there  is  no  more  inter- 


Press  Room 
The  International  Paper  Company 

esting  feature  about  Niagara  and  its  paper  mills  than  the 
manner  in  which  this  great  mill  receives  its  wood  sup- 
ply. The  wood  is  brought  down  the  lakes  from  Brimley, 
Mich.,  on  barges,  and  unloaded  in  a  boom  yard  on  Grand 
Island,  two  miles  above  the  mill.  The  company  has  a 
tug  and  a  tow  boom,  and  by  this  means  the  wood  is 
brought  from  the  island  to  the  mainland  near  Schlosser 
Dock,  where  it  is  floated  into  a  boom  that  runs  parallel 
with  the  shore,  along  the  lands  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  to  a  point  back  of  the  mill,  the  current 
carrying  it  down  stream.  Near  the  entrance  to  the  inlet 


ii4  The    Niagara    Falls 

canal  it  is  placed  on  a  log  conveyor,  which  carries  it  to 
the  company's  yard,  where  distribution  is  made  by  means 
of  three  lateral  conveyors,  all  operated  by  electric  power. 
The  capacity  of  the  wood  yard  is  about  30,000  cords, 
which  supply  carries  the  mill  through  the  winter  months. 

ELECTRICAL  LEAD  REDUCTION  COMPANY 

ANEW  process  for  the  reduction  of  lead  by 
electricity,  under  patents  of  P.  G.  Salom,  has 
been  conducted  at  Niagara  Falls  during  the 
past  three  years  by  the  Electrical  Lead  Re- 
duction Company. 

The  chief  merits  of  the  invention  are  the  reduced 
cost  of  production  of  pure  lead,  for  all  the  uses  for 
which  it  is  adapted,  and  the  rapid  and  economical 
conversion  of  the  same  into  its  various  commercial 
forms.  The  process  as  now  conducted  is  as  follows: 
The  ore,  after  having  been  carefully  washed,  to 
remove  as  far  as  possible  the  dirt  and  loose  gangue, 
is  ground  up  into  fine  powder,  of  40  or  50  mesh,  and 
is  fed  into  large  circular  cells  with  rotating  bottoms. 
As  the  bottom  slowly  revolves,  the  ore  is  subjected 
to  a  current  of  electricity,  and  by  the  time  it  has 
reached  the  point  of  entry  is  thoroughly  reduced  to 
metallic  spongy  lead  and  is  removed  from  the  cell 
through  an  opening  in  the  top,  from  time  to  time  as  it 
accumulates,  by  a  scraper  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  cell. 
Each  cell  has  a  capacity  of  200  pounds  of  sponge 
a  day.  The  process  is  continuous — a  uniform  quantity 
of  ore  being  charged  per  hour.  The  operation  of  the  cell 
is  entirely  automatic.  The  cells  are  placed  in  rows  of 
seventeen  or  more  each,  with  a  motion  rod  or  bar  be- 
tween them,  to  which  is  fastened  from  each  cell  a  lever 
actuating  a  pawl  and  ratchet,  with  suitable  gear  wheels, 
by  means  of  which  the  cell  is  rotated  at  the  speed 
desired — the  only  manual  labor  employed  at  present, 
being  in  charging  the  cells  with  the  raw  ore,  and 
in  taking  out  the  spongy  lead  obtained  by  the  process 
of  reduction.  The  time  required  for  reduction  is 
about  one  and  one-half  hours. 


Electrical    Handbook  115 

The  process  of  charging  the  ore  can  readily  be 
accomplished  automatically,  when  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  cells  are  in  operation  to  make  it  desirable  to 
do  so.  To  operate  100  cells,  capable  of  producing  200 
Ibs  each  of  lead  sponge  per  day,  only  three  men  are 
required.  As  the  operation,  however,  is  continuous, 
day  and  night,  two  shifts  per  day  are  required. 

The  sponge  is  readily  convertible  into  any  of  the 
lead  compounds,  such  as  litharge,  red  lead,  white 
lead,  etc.,  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours.  The 


company's  product  up  to  the  present  time  has  been 
litharge,  for  which  it  has  found  a  ready  market  for 
every  pound  manufactured.  The  chief  value  of  the 
sponge  is  in  the  manufacture  of  white  lead  and  for  stor- 
age batteries. 

The  electrical  equipment  consists  of  two  3OO-h.p. 
Westinghouse  Type  "C"  induction  motors,  con- 
nected direct  to  two  25O-kw.  direct  current,  no-volt 
generators.  The  induction  motors  take  current 
direct  from  the  2,2OO-volt,  2-phase  circuits  of  The 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Company. 


n6  The    Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  117 

INTERNATIONAL  ACHESON   GRAPHITE  COM- 
PANY 

IN     the     plant     of     the     International     Acheson 
Graphite    Company    is    found    one    of    the    few 
successful    duplications    of    nature's    processes. 
Graphite    and    its    many    important    uses    have 
been  known   for   many  ages,  but   it  is  only   during 
the  last  few  years  that  it   has  been  produced   arti- 
ficially.    The  company  started  commercial  work  on 
a  small  scale  in  the  year  1898  and  contracted  for  500 
h.  p.  with  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company.     This 
was  soon  increased  to  1,000  h.  p.,  and  arrangements 
are  now  being  made  for  extensive  additions  to  the 
plant  and  for  a  still  further  increase  to  2,000  h.  p. 
in  the  power  consumed.     With  this  increase  several 
thousand   tons   of  artificial   graphite   will  be   manu- 
factured each  year. 

In  1891,  Mr.  E.  G.  Acheson  was  experimenting  on 
the  production  of  a  crystalline  form  of  carbon  by  heat- 
ing a  mixture  of  clay  and  coke  in  an  electric  furnace. 
These  experiments  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  new 
compound  of  carbon  and  silicon,  now  well  known  as 
the  celebrated  abrasive  carborundum.  While  manu- 
facturing this  in  the  electric  furnace,  Mr.  Acheson 
frequently  found  in  the  latter  a  form  of  carbon  having 
all  the  properties  of  graphite,  and  investigation  proved 
that  this  was  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  car- 
bide of  silicon.  It  requires  a  very  high  temperature  to 
form  carbide  of  silicon,  but  if  the  temperature  is  raised 
still  higher  the  compound  is  broken  up  into  its  ele- 
ments, the  silicon  being  driven  off  as  a  vapor  and  the 
carbon  left  behind  as  pure  graphite. 

Having  developed  the  manufacture  of  carbide  of 
silicon,  Mr.  Acheson  next  took  up  the  problem  of  the 
commercial  manufacture  of  graphite  from  amorphous 
carbon.  The  fact  that  graphite  is  formed  by  the  de- 
composition of  carbide  of  silicon  suggested  that  other 
carbides  might  also  yield  graphite  when  decomposed 
by  raising  them  to  a  high  temperature.  This  inference 
proved  to  be  correct,  for  Mr.  Acheson  found  that  he 


n8  The   Niagara   Falls 

could  produce  graphite  from  a  great  number  of  car- 
bides, such  as  the  carbides  of  aluminum,  manganese, 
iron,  etc.  But  in  most  carbides  the  weight  of  the 
carbide-forming  element  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
the  carbon ;  for  example,  carbide  of  silicon  contains 
70  per  cent,  of  carbide-forming  material,  i.  e.,  silicon, 
therefore  from  100  pounds  of  that  carbide  there  can  be 
produced  only  thirty  pounds  of  graphite,  and  sufficient 
heat  energy  to  vaporize  seventy  pounds  of  silicon  is 
required.  However,  as  the  investigation  progressed  it 
was  found  that  if  a  relatively  small  amount  of  the 
carbide-forming  material  was  intimately  mixed  with 
the  amorphous  carbon,  the  latter  was  converted  into 
graphite,  this  being  explained  by  the  hypothesis  of  a 
catalytic  or  contact  action. 

The  first  use  for  Acheson  Graphite  was  found  in 
the  manufacture  of  electrodes  for  electrolytic  and 
electro-metallurgical  work.  These  are  made  up  like 
an  ordinary  carbon,  such  as  is  used  in  arc  lights,  but 
a  certain  amount  of  carbide-forming  substance  is  added. 
When  the  electrode  is  heated  in  the  electric  furnace 
the  carbide-forming  element  reacts  with  the  carbon, 
forming  a  carbide,  and  at  a  still  higher  temperature 
is  driven  off,  leaving  the  electrode  in  the  form  of 
perfectly  pure  graphite. 

Such  articles,  known  as  Acheson  Graphite  Elec- 
trodes, are  proving  invaluable  in  practically  all  lines 
of  electrochemical  work  on  account  of  their  purity, 
high  electrical  conductivity,  uniformity  and  resist- 
ance to  oxidizing  and  disintegrating  action.  The 
density  is  2.25  and  the  specific  electrical  resistance 
Sooxio-8  ohm  per  cubic  centimetre  as  against  4,ooox 
IO-*  for  the  ordinary  amorphous  carbon.  In  such 
processes  as  the  decomposition  of  sodium  chloride 
solutions  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine  and  caustic 
soda,  they  have  a  life  from  four  to  eight  times  that 
of  even  the  best  retort  carbon.  A  further  and  dis- 
tinct advantage  not  possessed  by  any  other  form  of 
carbon  material  is  the  ease  with  which  the  graphite 
articles  can  be  machined.  Rods  and  slabs  can  be 


Electrical    Handbook  119 

assembled  into  economical  anode  forms,  and  in  elec- 
tric furnace  work  threaded  joints  can  be  made  be- 
tween electrodes  and  these  electrodes  fed  into  the 
furnace  one  after  the  other  as  consumed.  The 
graphite  articles  are  also  used  in  other  lines  of 
electrical  work,  such  as  for  motor  and  generator 
brushes,  sliding  contacts,  plungers  for  dash-pots  and 
circuit-breaker  terminals.  For  this  latter  purpose 
they  possess  peculiar  non-arcing  properties. 

In  the  Acheson  process  of  making  carbide  of  sili- 
con, the  furnace  is  heated  by  passing  an  electric  cur- 
rent through  a  core  of  granular  coke.  After  the 
furnace  has  been  operated,  many  of  the  grains  of 
coke  are  found  to  consist  of  an  excellent  grade  of 
graphite;  and  examination  has  shown  that  its  forma- 
tion is  dependent  on  the  ash  contained  in  the  original 
coke.  The  graphite,  however,  is  by  no  means  uni- 
form, as  might  be  expected,  as  the  distribution  of 
the  carbide-forming  ash  is  irregular.  But  the  pro- 
duction of  this  graphite  suggested  the  idea  that  a 
highly  satisfactory  graphite  might  be  obtained  if 
a  carbonaceous  material  containing  a  suitable,  uni- 
formly distributed  ash  could  be  found.  With  this 
object  in  view,  Mr.  Acheson  made  numerous  ex- 
periments on  various  carbonaceous  materials,  and 
found  that  he  could  produce  the  most  generally 
useful  graphite  from  anthracite  coal.  It  was  also  found 
that  petroleum  coke  yielded  a  very  satisfactory  graphite 
for  certain  purposes. 

The  furnaces  used  for  the  conversion  of  anthracite 
coal  into  graphite  are  in  the  form  of  long,  narrow 
troughs  built  of  fire  brick  and  lined  with  some  suit- 
able refractory  material.  At  each  end  of  the  trough 
is  a  terminal  built  of  large  carbon  rods,  to  which  'are 
connected  the  cables  conveying  the  current.  The  trough 
is  filled  with  anthracite  coal,  in  which  is  bedded  a 
carbon  rod  to  make  electrical  connection  between  the 
terminals.  Anthracite  coal  is  a  very  poor  conductor 
of  electricity,  hence  the  necessity  for  this  rod.  A  cur- 
rent developing  a  thousand  horse-power  is  used  in 


120  The   Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  121 

operating  one  of  these  furnaces,  although  larger  fur- 
naces are  now  being  installed  with  a  capacity  of  2,000 
h.  p.  each.  The  temperature  to  which  the  coal  is 
raised  before  conversion  into  graphite  is  very  high. 
Some  notion  of  the  temperature  may  be  obtained  from 
the  observation  of  the  deposit  of  silica  on  the  walls 
of  the  furnaces.  During  the  operation  the  silica  of 
the  ash  carried  by  the  anthracite  coal  is  reduced  and 
the  silicon  combines  with  carbon  to  form  silicon  car- 
bide; eventually  this  is  decomposed  and  the  silicon 
is  driven  to  the  outside  of  the  furnace  in  the  form  of 
incandescent  vapor,  which  burns  in  the  air,  depositing 
silica  as  a  fine,  white  powder  on  the  brick  walls.  In 
the  same  way  other  constituents  of  the  ash,  such  as 
iron  and  aluminum,  are  vaporized  and  dissipated. 

When  the  furnace  has  cooled  the  graphite  is  re- 
moved, taken  to  a  mill,  where  it  is  crushed,  and  finally 
separated  into  the  sizes  necessary  for  the  various  uses 
to  which  graphite  is  put.  Thus,  graphite  used  for  a 
pigment  is  ground  to  an  impalpable  powder,  while  that 
used  for  crucibles  is  in  the  form  of  a  coarse  grain  or 
flake.  In  the  case  of  natural  graphites,  when  a  pure 
product  is  desired,  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  costly 
and  troublesome  process  of  purification  by  acids  and 
washing;  but  since  Acheson  graphite  is  produced  at 
a  temperature  where  all  bodies  but  carbon  are  vaporized, 
it  follows  that  its  purity  depends  on  the  length  of  time 
for  which  it  has  been  heated.  For  commercial  pur- 
poses it  is  customary  to  leave  only  from  one  to  ten 
per  cent,  of  impurities  in  the  graphite.  It  is  possible 
to  make  it  practically  chemically  pure,  for  graphite 
containing  only  three  parts  of  ash  in  10,000  Iris  been 
obtained ;  but  for  ordinary  commercial  purposes  such  a 
high  degree  of  purity  is  unnecessary,  and  of  course 
such  a  pure  graphite  is  more  expensive  than  the  lower 
grades.  When  the  graphite  is  burnt,  all  the  impuri- 
ties are  found  in  the  residual  ash,  which  consists 
principally  of  silicon,  iron  and  aluminum,  the  first 
predominating. 

One  of  the  most  valuable   applications  of  Acheson 


122  The    Niagara    Falls 

graphite  is  found  in  the  manufacture  of  protective 
coatings  for  structural  iron  and  steel,  and  large  quan- 
tities are  now  used  for  this  purpose,  for  which  its 
qualities  of  purity,  uniformity  and  chemical  inertness 
make  it  especially  valuable.  The  only  impurities  present 
are  silicon  carbide — one  of  the  most  chemically  inert 
bodies  known — and  traces  of  silica,  iron  oxide  and 
alumina.  Since  Acheson  graphite  is  made  at  a  tem- 
perature at  which  all  but  the  most  stable  chemical 
compounds  cease  to  exist,  all  decomposable  bodies 
are  destroyed.  In  its  use  there  is  absolute  control 
over  all  three  elements  entering  into  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  high  grade  protective  coating,  viz.:  The 
oil  or  medium,  the  pigment  and  the  drier.  The  drier 
can  be  selected  to  meet  the  requirements  of  each 
particular  case,  and  the  degree  of  drying  can  be 
regulated  at  will.  Most  natural  graphites,  or  so- 
called  graphite  pigments,  are  either  by-products  or 
low  grade  ores,  in  both  cases  too  impure  for  other 
purposes.  They  vary  considerably  in  quality,  and  have 
to  be  mixed  with  lampblack  or  high  grade  graphite 
in  order  that  some  semblance  of  uniformity  may  be 
maintained.  Acheson  graphite  is  standard  and  has 
fully  proved  its  superiority  over  the  natural  graphites 
for  the  protection  of  buildings,  bridges,  cars,  vessels, 
or  in  fact  every  form  of  structural  iron  and  steel. 

Acheson  graphite  is  also  used  in  lubricating  work 
and  as  foundry  facings.  In  the  electrical  arts  it  has 
values  peculiar  to  itself.  There  is  no  other  form  of 
carbon,  either  amorphous  or  graphitic,  which  possesses 
in  the  same  degree  high  electrical  conductivity,  purity, 
uniformity  and  inert  characteristics.  These  properties 
are  all  absolutely  necessary  in  the  material  to  be  used  as 
the  filler  in  dry  batteries.  The  high  conductivity 
gives  a  battery  of  low  internal  resistance  and  high 
current  capacity;  the  purity  and  inert  characteristics 
give  one  free  from  deterioration  and  local  chemical 
action  between  the  graphite  and  the  solution  used  as 
electrolyte;  and  the  uniformity  gives  one  whose  effi- 
ciency and  reliability  of  action  can  be  guaranteed. 


Electrical   Handbook  123 

Acheson  Graphite  is  also  used  for  electrotyping  purposes 
and  is  added  to  the  carbon  compounds  from  which 
motor  brushes  are  manufactured,  not  only  increas- 
ing the  electrical  conductivity  of  the  brush,  but  giv- 
ing self-lubricating  properties  as  well. 

Acheson  graphite  is  a  manufactured  product  pos- 
sessing all  the  value,  with  none  of  the  inherent  dis- 
advantages, of  the  natural  graphites.  Over  all  stages 
of  its  manufacture  there  is  absolute  control.  By  the 
choice  of  different  forms  of  raw  materials,  and  by  the 
proper  application  of  the  principles  involved  in  its 
manufacture,  different  grades  can  be  made  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  different  lines  of  work.  All  grades  are 
pure,  uniform  and  inert,  but  in  other  characteristics 
each  grade  is  made  to  fulfill  most  satisfactorily  the  con- 
ditions of  the  work  in  which  it  is  to  be  used. 


ROBERTS  CHEMICAL   COMPANY 

THE  Roberts  Chemical  Company  manufactures 
high  grade  caustic  potash  and  chemically  pure 
muriatic  acid.     The  process  is  purely  electrolytic, 
and  consists  in  electrolyzing  muriate  of  potash  in 
a   diaphragm  cell.     On  the  cathode  side  of  the  parti- 
tion  liquid   potash   and   hydrogen   gas   are   produced, 
while  the  anode  side  gives  off  chlorine  gas.     A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  potash  is  sold  in  the  liquid 
form,  but  most  of  it  is  concentrated  and  then  evap- 
orated in   kettles   to   the   solid   form.     In   this   form 
it  is  put  up  in  iron  drums.     The    liquid    potash    is 
shipped  in  carboys  or  iron  tanks. 

Muriatic  acid  is  produced  by  the  chemical  combi- 
nation of  the  hydrogen  and  chlorine  gases.  The 
muriatic  acid  fumes  thus  formed  are  absorbed  by 
distilled  water,  producing  muriatic  acid  of  excep- 
tional purity.  The  muriate  of  potash  from  which 
these  products  are  manufactured  is  imported  from 
Germany,  and  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
chloride  of  potash,  fertilizers,  and  a  number  of  other 
products. 


124  The    Niagara    Falls 

The  use  of  potash  in  manufacturing  soaps  is 
similar  to  that  of  caustic  soda,  but  since  it  sells 
at  from  three  to  four  times  the  price  of  caustic 
soda,  it  is  not  used  when  the  latter  can  be  sub- 
stituted. Caustic  soda  makes  hard  soaps;  whereas 
caustic  potash  makes  a  soft  soap.  All  the  high 
grade  toilet  soaps  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
potash,  and  practically  all  of  the  soaps  used  for 
washing  silks  and  woolens  must  be  made  of  potash, 
since  soaps  made  with  caustic  soda  deteriorate  the 
fibre  of  such  fabrics. 

Caustic  potash  is  very  extensively  used  by  the 
electro-plating  trade  for  removing  grease  from  the 
work  before  it  is  plated.  The  soft  soap  formed  with 
the  grease  by  potash  is  much  more  readily  dissolved 
than  hard  soap  would  be,  with  the  result  that  the 
work  is  cleaned  much  more  quickly  and  much  more 
thoroughly  than  if  caustic  soda  was  used. 

Muriatic  acid  is  largely  used  by  chemical  labora- 
tories and  by  manufacturing  chemists  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  number  of  other  chemicals. 


THE  FRANCIS  HOOK  AND  EYE  AND 
FASTENER  COMPANY 

THE    Francis    Hook    and    Eye    and    Fastener 
Company,  located  upon  the  lands  of  The  Ni- 
agara  Falls    Power    Company,   manufactures 
snap  fasteners  of  an  improved  type  for  use 
on   gloves,  purses,   umbrellas,   optical   goods,   ladies' 
garments,  and  on  the  many  other  articles  to  which 
snap  buttons  are  applicable.     These  fasteners  are  pat- 
ented.    The  machinery  and  processes  used  in  their 
production  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  much 
skill  and  care  in  handling. 

The  Francis  machines  were  constructed  to  a  large 
extent  in  the  machine  shop  of  the  company,  where 
new  machines  are  constantly  being  built  and  old  ones 
improved. 


Electrical   Handbook  125 


126  The    Niagara    Falls 

All  the  machinery  is  operated  by  electric  power, 
derived  from  550-volt  direct  current  motors. 

The  Francis  plant  is  of  the  most  approved  factory 
construction,  having  been  built  especially  for  the 
purposes  of  the  company  after  years  of  experience 
in  a  smaller  building. 

NORTON  EMERY  WHEEL  COMPANY 

THE    Niagara    Falls    Works    of    the    Norton 
Emery    Wheel     Company    are    devoted    ex- 
clusively to  the  manufacture  of  the  abrasive, 
"alundum."     This    abrasive    is    manufactured 
by    a    patented,    electrical-furnace     process    and    is 
shipped    to    the    main    works    of    the    company    at 
Worcester,  Massachusetts,  where  it  is  prepared  for 
grinding  wheels,  stones,  grains,  and  other  abrasive 
articles. 

This  electrical-furnace  plant  was  started  in  1901, 
being  located  at  Niagara  Falls  to  secure  the  advantage 
of  electric  power.  The  factory  has  been  enlarged  sev- 
eral times  and  additional  furnaces  and  other  ap- 
paratus have  been  installed. 

Alundum  is  an  electrically  produced  crystal- 
line oxide  of  aluminum.  In  nature  the  crystalline 
oxide  of  aluminum  occurs  in  its  purer  forms  as  the 
ruby  and  sapphire,  and  in  its  more  common  form  as 
corundum.  Corundum  is  the  hardest  natural  product 
known  except  the  diamond,  but  is  not  as  hard  as 
alundum. 

The  superiority  of  alundum  in  hardness  and 
toughness  is  accounted  for  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture by  the  peculiar  conditions  of  its  crystalliza- 
tion in  the  electric  furnace,  and  by  the  control  of  its 
purity  and  uniformity.  This  electrically  produced 
corundum,  while  it  resembles  natural  corundum  in 
many  respects,  is  much  superior  in  hardness  and 
toughness. 

Bauxite,  the  raw  material  from  which  alundum 
is  made,  is  an  amorphous  hydrate  of  aluminum,  asso- 
ciated with  certain  impurities  which  are  removed  in 


Electrical    Handbook  127 

the  process  of  manufacturing  alundum.  Bauxite 
was  originally  found  at  Baux,  France,  from  which  it 
derives  its  name,  but  purer  forms  are  now  found  in 
Georgia  and  Arkansas. 

This  hydrate  is  reduced  to  an  oxide,  melted  in 
electric  furnaces  of  special  design,  the  impurities 
removed,  and  large  pigs  of  solid  alundum  pro- 
duced of  most  beautiful  coloring  and  crystalline  structure. 

The  process  of  transforming  bauxite  into  a  pure, 
crystalline  abrasive,  was  invented  by  Charles  B. 


Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company 

Jacobs,  of  New  York  City,  and  is  protected  by  United 
States  and  foreign  patents,  which  are  controlled 
exclusively  by  the  Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company. 

Six  large  electric  furnaces  are  installed,  together 
with  other  apparatus  for  carrying  out  the  process. 

A  large  crushing  and  grading  mill  for  crushing 
and  grading  alundum  is  located  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  where  it  is  manufactured  into  abrasive  wheels, 
stones  and  other  articles.  Alundum  is  also  used 
to  a  large  extent  on  abrasive  paper,  for  grinding  glass 
and  for  polishing,  in  all  of  which  lines  it  has  marked 
advantages. 


The    Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  129 

THE  NATURAL  FOOD  COMPANY 

THE  Natural  Food  Company  manufactures  the 
products  known  as  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit 
and  Triscuit.  In  the  manufacture  of  "Tris- 
cuit,"  the  first  commercial  use  of  electricity 
for  baking  has  been  made. 

The  factory  of  The  Natural  Food  Company  is 
situated  on  Buffalo  avenue,  between  Fourth  and 
Sixth  streets,  occupying  an  entire  block.  This  loca- 
tion is  in  the  heart  of  the  residence  section  of  the 
city.  It  has  a  frontage  of  900  feet  on  the  Niagara 
River  and  adjoins  the  State  Reservation,  so  that 
other  manufacturing  industries  cannot  encroach  upon 
the  plant.  The  absolute  cleanliness  in  surroundings, 
required  in  the  process  of  the  manufacture  of  a  pure 
food,  is  thus  secured.  The  building  is  466  feet  long 
by  66  feet  deep,  and  consists  of  a  main  building  with 
four  connecting  wings. 

Upon  entering  the  building  one  steps  directly  into 
a  large  foyer  or  reception  hall,  where  guides  are  at 
hand  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  parties  through 
the  plant.  Just  off  the  foyer  are  two  electric  ele- 
vators used  for  conveying  visitors  to  the  roof  garden, 
or  observatory,  from  which  a  magnificent  view  of 
the  upper  rapids  and  of  the  industrial  section  of  the 
city  ma}r  be  obtained. 

The  first  process  of  the  manufacture  is  seen  in 
the  cleaning  room.  This  process  is  that  of  cleaning 
the  wheat  as  it  is  received  from  the  fields,  and  con- 
sists of  twenty-six  steps,  by  means  of  which  fourteen 
foreign  substances  are  removed  from  the  grain, 
which  is  thus  rendered  thoroughly  clean  and  ready 
for  the  cooking  and  shredding  processes. 

From  the  cleaning  room  the  visitor  is  conducted 
to  the  gallery  of  the  girls'  dining  room,  where  a 
substantial  luncheon  is  provided  daily,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  company,  for  the  girls  in  its  employ. 

From  the  dining  room,  one  enters  the  sealing 
room,  in  which  is  conducted  the  last  step  in  the 
process  of  manufacture.  The  sealing  is  done  by  a 


The    Niagara    Falls 


Electrical   Handbook  137 

very  ingenious  machine,  which  receives  the  packages 
conveyed  automatically  from  the  packing  tables  on 
the  second  floor,  and  which  closes  and  in  turn  seals 
each  individual  package.  After  this  operation  the 
packages  are  placed  in  cases  containing  twenty-five 
or  fifty  cartons  each,  and  are  then  ready  for  shipment. 

The  visitor  is  next  brought  to  the  auditorium, 
which  has  a  seating  capacity  of  1,080,  and  is  used 
for  concerts,  lectures  and  other  entertainments. 
The  use  of  this  hall  is  given  free  to  any  convention 
desiring  to  hold  its  sessions  at  Niagara.  The  hall 
is  well  equipped  and  has  adjoining  toilet  rooms  and 
committee  rooms. 

From  the  auditorium  one  passes  to  the  third  floor 
of  the  building,  where  the  wheat  is  exposed  in  large 
open  trays  undergoing  the  "curing  process,",  which 
consists  merely  of  drying  the  wheat  to  bring  it  to 
the  proper  consistency  for  shredding.  This  is  the 
third  step  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  wheat 
having  been  previously  "cooked"  for  thirty-five  min- 
utes by  steaming  in  revolving  wire  kettles  located 
upon  the  sixth  floor.  After  the  wheat  has  reached 
the  proper  consistency,  it  is  "spouted"  to  the  shred- 
ding floor  directly  beneath. 

Adjoining  the  curing  room  is  the  space  devoted 
to  the  manufacture  of  "Triscuit,"  which  is  made  and 
baked  by  electricity.  Its  manufacture  is  identical 
with  that  of  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  baking.  The  wheat  is  spun  into 
shreds  by  mechanical  process  and  is  conveyed  by  an 
endless  belt  to  ovens,  each  consisting  of  a  series  of 
electric  stoves,  each  link  of  which  is  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  an  ordinary  waffle  iron,  and  contains  127  elec- 
trical points.  The  shreds  are  deposited  automat- 
ically upon  the  series  of  links,  which  are  met  from 
above  by  another  series  of  links  which,  pressing 
upon  the  product,  forms  and  bakes  the  wafer  known 
as  "Triscuit."  Three  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power 
is  used  in  the  operation  of  each  of  the  electrical 
ovens.  The  triscuit  are  automatically  deposited  on 


I32 


The    Niagara    Falls 


carriers  and  taken  to  the  packing  tables,  where,  for 
the  only  time,  they  are  touched  by  hand,  when  they 
are  placed  in  cartons  by  neatly  attired  girls. 

From  the  triscuit  room  one  descends  to  the  sec- 
ond floor,  where  the  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit  are 
prepared.  The  wheat  ''spouted"  from  the  curing 
room  is  distributed  automatically  to  a  series  of 
thirty-six  pairs  of  rolls,  technically  known  as  "shred- 


Electric  Triscuit  Oven 
The  Natural  Food  Company 

ders."  The  shredder  consists  of  a  corrugated  roll 
four  inches  wide,  with  twenty  corrugations  to  the 
inch.  This  corrugated  roll  "antagonizes"'  a  smooth 
roll,  and  the  wheat  being  pressed  between  is  spun 
into  shreds  and  deposited  on  an  endless  belt  directly 
beneath  it.  Each  shredder  in  turn  deposits  a  layer 
of  shreds  upon  this  belt,  until  the  proper  thickness 
is  reached.  From  the  shredding  machine  the  shreds 
pass  to  the  cutter,  which  automatically  cuts  the 


Electrical   Handbook 


133 


shreds  into  biscuit  shape,  and  places  them  on  a  wire 
pan  for  baking.  The  pans  are  placed  in  racks  and 
carried  to  a  large  Ferris  wheel  oven,  where  for  thirty 
minutes  they  revolve  slowly  over  a  bed  of  coals  in 
a  temperature  of  about  450°  F.  The  biscuit  are  thus 
thoroughly  baked,  but  to  expel  any  moisture  which 
may  be  yet  present  in  them  they  go  through  a  sec- 
ond baking  in  a  drying  oven,  consisting  of  a*  low 


Transformers  and  End  of  Electric  Triscuit  Oven 
The  Natural  Food  Company 

horizontal  structure,  approximately  150  feet  in 
length,  through  which  the  pans  are  carried  automat- 
ically. In  this  oven  the  biscuit  are  exposed  to  a 
temperature  of  from  200°  to-  300°  F.  for  a  period  of 
nearly  one  and  one-half  hours.  As  the  biscuit  come 
from  this  second  oven  they  are  thoroughly  dry  and 
crisp  and  are  ready  for  the  market. 

From  the  second  oven  the  biscuit  go  to  the  pack- 


134  The   Niagara    Falls 

ing  tables,  where,  for  the  first  time  in  the  process, 
they  are  touched  by  hand,  when  the  girls  pack  them 
in  cartons  holding  one  dozen  each.  From  the  pack- 
ing table  the  cartons  are  conveyed  automatically  to 
the  sixth  floor,  where  they  enter  the  sealing  machine 
previously  described. 

The  visitor  is  next  taken  to  the  basement  floor, 
where  are  located  paint  shop,  mill-wright  and  car- 
penter shops  and  electrical  rooms,  as  well  as  bicycle 
racks.  Here,  also,  is  located  the  ventilating  system, 
which  changes  automatically  every  fifteen  minutes 
the  air  in  the  manufacturing  section.  In  the  offices 
the  air  is  changed  every  seven  and  one-half  minutes, 
and  in  the  lecture  hall  every  five  minutes. 

Each  floor  is  provided  with  two  lavatories, 
finished  in  marble  and  mosaic,  and  equipped  with 
shower  and  needle  baths  supplied  with  hot  and  cold 
water.  The  employees  are  allowed  ample  time  for 
the  use  of  the  baths  and  are  furnished  with  soap  and 
towels  by  the  company.  Individual  lockers  are  also 
provided  for  the  employees. 

In  the  work  conducted  by  the  Natural  Food 
Company  there  has  been  no  attempt  to  work  out 
any  sociological  problems,  or  to  carry  on  experi- 
ments of  any  kind.  The  thought  which  has  actuated 
the  company  has  been  merely  to  surround  the  em- 
ployees with  ideal  working  conditions. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit 
and  Triscuit  nothing  is  used  but  the  whole  of  the 
wheat,  the  grain  being  merely  cleaned,  steamed, 
shredded  and  twice  baked.  Nothing  is  added  to  and 
nothing  is  taken  away  from  the  perfect  wheat. 

In  the  operation  of  the  factory  and  for  its  light- 
ing, 2-phase,  25-cycle  alternating  current,  supplied 
by  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  at  a  potential 
of  2,200  volts,  is  used.  After  leaving  the  terminal 
board,  located  in  the  east  Transformer  Room,  the 
current  passes  through  automatic  oil  circuit  break- 
ers. There  are  three  of  these  circuit  breakers,  two 
of  which  control  the  lines  supplying  the  east  and 


Electrical   Handbook  135 

west  Transformer  Rooms,  while  the  third  handles 
the  lines  supplying  the  transformers  located  in  the 
Triscuit  Department  on  the  third  floor  of  the  fac- 
tory. In  each  Transformer  Room  are  located  four 
Westinghouse  oil-insulated  self-cooling  transform- 
ers. Two  of  these  transformers,  of  75  kw.  each, 
furnish  half  the  factory  with  a  ii5-volt  lighting  cur- 
rent. The  two  remaining  transformers  furnish  their 
half  of  the  factory  with  a  440-volt  current  for  oper- 


Triscuit  Cutter  and  Fanner 
The  Natural  Food  Company 

ating  the  motors.  In  the  east  Transformer  Room 
is  located  a  i5O-kw.  rotary  converter,  supplying  a 
22O-volt  direct  current  for  operating  the  elevators  in 
both  the  Administration  Building  and  the  Factory. 
The  west  Transformer  Room  is  a  duplicate  of  the 
east  Transformer  Room,  with  the  exception  that  it 
contains  a  12-kw.  motor  generator  set  instead  of  a 
rotary  converter.  This  generator  is  used  in  charging 
storage  batteries  which  in  turn  operate  the  bells  and 
the  telephone  system.  The  factory  is  operated  by 


i j<5  The    Niagara    Palls 

87  induction  motors,  ranging  in  size  from  one  h.p.  to 
40  h.p.,  and  the  buildings  are  lighted  by  2,500  incan- 
descent lamps. 

On  the  third  floor  of  the  factory  are  located  eight 
i4O-kw.  transformers,  supplying  the  four  triscuit 
ovens  with  current  for  baking.  By  means  of  a  volt- 
age regulator  the  voltage  on  the  secondaries  may  be 
varied  from  80  volts  to  127  volts.  Each  set  of  trans- 
formers is  supplied  by  an  automatic  oil  circuit 
breaker. 

RAMAPO  IRON  WORKS 

THE  Niagara  Falls  plant  of  the  Ramapo  Iron 
Works  of  Hillburn,  Rockland  County,  N.  Y., 
is  situated  at  the  corner  of  Buffalo  avenue 
and  Iroquois  street. 

In  1903,  the  Ramapo  Iron  Works  took  over  the 
interests  and  building  of  the  MacPherson  Switch 
and  Frog  Company,  a  company  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing switches,  frogs  and  other  railway  supplies. 
Since  this  combination  was  formed,  the  Ramapo 
Iron  Works  has  added  to  its  Niagara  plant  several 
new  buildings,  including  a  switch  shop  293  feet  long 
by  85  feet  wide,  and  a  crossing  shop  285  feet  long 
by  75  feet  wide.  The  output  of  the  old  MacPherson 
Switch  and  Frog  Company  has  thus  been  multiplied 
threefold.  The  buildings  are  of  brick  and  wood, 
with  iron  sheathing  covering  the  wood.  The  sides 
of  the  buildings  are  mainly  of  glass,  making  a  very 
light  and  healthful  plant  for  the  men  to  work  in. 

The  machines  are  all  driven  by  electric  power 
obtained  from  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company, 
no  steam  or  other  power  being  used.  The  electrical 
equipment  consists  of  step-down  transformers  hav- 
ing ratios  of  2,200  volts  to  440  volts  and  to  no  volts, 
with  an  aggregate  output  of  450  kw.  Current  is 
supplied  through  these  transformers  to  44O-volt,  2- 
phase  motors,  scattered  about  the  works,  and  to 
incandescent  lights  operating  on  no-volt  circuits. 


Electrical    Handbook  137 

The  company  is  now  constructing  a  building  to 
be  used  as  a  restaurant  for  the  employees,  in  which 
hot  meals  will  be  served  at  noon. 


THE  COMPOSITE  BOARD  COMPANY 

COMPOSITE  board  is  the  result  of  numerous 
experiments  to  produce  a  material  having 
the  desirable  qualities  of  ordinary  lumber 
without  the  objectionable  features  of  natural 
wood.  The  patentees  of  the  process  have  succeeded 
in  producing  from  wood  pulp  and  flax  fibre,  a  chemi- 
cally treated  board  or  panel,  which  having  no  grain 
like  ordinary  wood  will  neither  split  nor  check,  and 
which  may  be  made  in  sheets  or  boards  of  any  de- 
sired thickness  by  glueing,  under  great  pressure,  the 
separate  layers.  The  material  is  produced  in  panels, 
7  feet  by  14  feet,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of 
joints  or  seams  where  large  surfaces  are  to  be  cov- 
ered. In  the  process  of  manufacture  it  may  be 
curved  to  any  given  radius.  Efforts  to  fireproof 
the  material  have  been  successful,  and  board  is  now 
produced  which  is  not  only  flame  resisting,  but  which 
has  excellent  qualities  as  an  insulator  of  electricity. 
Tests  have  proved  that  a  quarter-inch  sheet  of  com- 
posite board  required  28,000  volts  alternating  for  its 
puncture,  while  a  half-inch  sheet  withstood  success- 
fully 47,000  volts  alternating. 

Composite  board  is  used  extensively  for  interior 
finish  of  railway  coaches  and  in  marine  work. 

The  plant  of  the  company  consists  of  large  brick 
buildings  on  the  lands  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company.  Power  is  received  from  the  circuits  of 
that  Company  at  2,200  volts,  2-phase,  and  is  stepped 
down  to  220  volts  for  use  in  induction  motors,  by 
means  of  which  the  various  machines  in  the  plant  are 
driven.  Upwards  of  200  h.  p.  in  all  are  used. 


/ j#  The    Niagara    Falls 

NIAGARA   RESEARCH   LABORATORIES 

THE    maintenance    of    universities    and,    espe- 
cially,  of   technical   institutions,   is   generally 
recognized  as  an  efficient  means  of  promot- 
ing the   development  of  science   and   of  en- 
abling the  greatest  industrial  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  the  results  of  scientific  progress. 

The    rapidly    increasing    importance    attached    to 
applied  science  in  the   courses  of  instruction   in   the 


Niagara  Research  Laboratories 

scientific  schools  has  necessitated  a  corresponding 
enlargement  of  laboratory  equipments;  so  that  to- 
day, many  of  these  institutions  offer  excellent  facili- 
ties for  a  thorough  education,  and  for  scientific  re- 
search. Although  many  industrial  processes  have 
originated  and  have  been  investigated  in  the  univer- 
sity laboratory,  most  of  these  have  required  further 
development  before  commercial  success  was  attained, 
because  of  the  limited  scale  upon  which  experimental 
work  is  usually  conducted  in  such  laboratories.  The 


Electrical    Handbook  139 

unexpected  technical  difficulties  frequently  encount- 
ered when  these  processes  are  operated  on  a  manu- 
facturing basis,  and  not  previously  met  with  in  the 
work  on  a  small  scale,  have  in  many  cases,  been  the 
cause  of  unfortunate  results. 

Realizing  that  the  establishment  of  a  plant 
equipped  with  facilities  for  chemical,  electrochemical, 
and  electro-metallurgical  investigations  and  develop- 
ments on  a  commercial  scale,  would  offer  peculiar 
advantages  to  inventors  and  manufacturers,  fulfill  an 
obvious  need,  and  enable  the  experimental  and  con- 
sulting engineers  of  the  company  to  develop  their 
original  ideas,  the  Niagara  Research  Laboratories 
were  organized,  and  erected  the  building  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  on  the  lands  of  The 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Company. 

Situated  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  building  are 
the  machine  shop,  grinding  room,  transformer  and 
dynamo  room,  electric  furnace  laboratory,  and  the 
isolated  spaces  available  for  experimenters  wish- 
ing to  conduct  work  of  a  private  nature.  On  the 
second  floor  are  the  chemical  and  electrochemical 
laboratories,  and  offices  of  the  company.  The  top 
story  is  used  for  photographic  work,  for  investiga- 
tions of  the  chemical  effects  of  the  various  light  rays, 
and  for  storage  purposes. 

Electrical  energy  is  received  from  The  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company,  in  the  form  of  a  two-phase 
alternating  current,  at  2,200  volts,  constant  potential. 
By  means  of  various  transforming  devices  and  motors 
located  in  the  power  room,  this  energy  is  utilized  in 
the  operation  of  electric  furnaces  and  electrolytic 
cells,  the  machine  shop  and  grinding  room,  and  in 
the  heating  and  lighting  of  the  building. 

The  alternating  current  transformer  used  in  con- 
nection with  high  temperature  experimental  work  is 
of  the  water  cooled,  oil  insulated  type,  and  has  its 
windings  so  constructed  that  the  full  capacity  of  the 
apparatus,  500  e.  h.  p.,  may  be  obtained  at  variable 
secondary  voltages. 


140  The    Niagara    Falls 


Interior  Views 
Niagara  Research  Laboratories 


Electrical    Handbook  141 

Direct  current  of  sufficient  volume  to  permit  of 
the  electrolysis  of  compounds  in  the  fused  condition 
is  derived  from  a  low  potential  generator  of  the 
double  commutator  type.  According  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  external  connections  of  this  separately 
excited  dynamo,  which  commutates  perfectly  its  full 
load  current  under  wide  variations  of  field  strength, 
either  a  current  of  2,000  amperes  at  any  electro- 
motive force,  not  exceeding  eight  volts,  or  a  current 
of  1,000  amperes  at  any  pressure  not  exceeding  six- 
teen volts  may  be  obtained. 

Separate  sets  of  bus  bars  carry  the  current  from 
the  generator  and  transformer  to  the  electric  fur- 
naces, and  are  so  arranged  that  connections  can  be 
readily  made  to  apparatus  erected  in  any  part  of  the 
furnace  room. 

Various  types  and  sizes  of  electric  furnaces  are 
in  use.  Some  of  these  are  suitable  for  a  general 
class  of  work  and  are  frequently  employed  in  the 
early  stages  of  an  investigation;  other  furnaces  have 
been  constructed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  special 
problems  and  utilize  500  e.h.p.  in  their  operation. 
The  electrical  instruments  employed  in  the  furnace 
room  are  mounted  on  a  portable  switchboard  and 
their  design  is  such  that  accurate  scale  readings  may 
be  obtained  from  zero  to  10,000  amperes.  Integra- 
ting wattmeters  are  also  used  in  connection  with  the 
electric  furnace  circuits,  thus  enabling,  in  the  case 
of  alternating  currents,  the  determination  of  the 
power  factor  of  such  circuits,  a  matter  that  has  not 
received  too  great  attention. 

The  analytical  laboratory  is  equipped  in  a  modern 
way  for  the  analysis  of  such  organic  and  inorganic 
compounds  as  may  be  met  with  in  experimental 
work,  and  with  facilities  for  general  chemical  re- 
search. Many  convenient  electrical  heating  appli- 
ances are  in  use  in  this  laboratory. 

The  equipment  of  the  electrolytic  laboratory  con- 
sists of  the  electrical  measuring  instruments,  resist- 
ances, storage  batteries,  rectifiers,  and  other  appar- 


1^2  The    Niagara    Falls 

atus  necessary  for  the  simultaneous  conduct  of  sev- 
eral electrochemical  investigations. 

Ore  crushing  and  pulverizing  machines  of  a 
standard  type  are  installed  in  the  grinding  room, 
and  the  machine  shop  tools  are  also  of  a  standard 
type.  They  are  necessary  adjuncts,  however,  to  an 
experimental  laboratory  of  this  class. 

It  may  be  understood  from  the  above  description 
that  the  object  of  this  company  was  not  only  to 
establish  a  laboratory  in  which  scientific  research 
could  be  conducted,  but  to  provide  facilities  for  the 
development  and  demonstration  of  electrochemical 
processes  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to  determine 
the  prospects  of  their  commercial  success. 


Canadian    Tenants  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company 

THE  first  demands  for  Niagara  power  in  Canada, 
aside   from  that  used   for   railway  purposes, 
were   met   by   the    Canadian    Niagara  Power 
Company  by   the   installation   in   the    Power 
House    of   the    International    Railway    Company,    in 
Queen  Victoria  Niagara  Falls  Park,  of  two  soo-h.p., 
2,200-volt,    3-phase    alternators,    driven    by   turbines. 
Subsequently  this  installation  was  reinforced  by  the 
laying  of  a  2,2OO-volt,   3-conductor   cable    from   the 
Power  House  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
on  the  American  side  to  the  railway  Power  House  in 
Canada,  the  carrying  capacity  of  this  line  being  ap- 
proximately 1,000  h.p.     The  distribution  to  the  vari- 
ous users  of  power  is  made  by  means  of  overhead 
3-phase  2,20O-volt  transmission  circuits. 

To  meet  the  increased  demands  for  power,  and 
in  anticipation  of  the  abandonment  of  the  alternator 
plant  in  the  Railway  Company's  Power  House,  an 
n,ooo-volt,  3-conductor  cable  was  installed  between 
the  American  Power  House  and  the  railway  plant 
in  Canada,  and  step-down  transformers  having  a 
ratio  of  11,000  to  2,200  volts  were  placed  at  the 
Canadian  end  of  this  cable.  On  account  of  the 
reconstruction  of  the  Railway  Power  House,  the 
two  alternators  were  removed  in  July,  1903,  since 
which  time  all  Niagara  power  used  in  Canada  for 
other  than  railway  purposes  has  been  transmitted 
from  the  American  side  by  means  of  the  n,ooo-volt, 
3-conductor  cable.  The  2,2OO-volt  line  will  be 
eventually  transformed  into  an  n,ooo-volt  circuit. 

The  principal  Canadian  power  users  are  as  fol- 
lows: The  Niagara  Electric  Light  Company,  using 


144  The    Niagara    Falls 

about  400  h.p.,  mainly  in  induction  motors  driving 
arc  machines  and  alternators;  The  Toronto  and  St. 
Catharines  Railway,  using  400  h.p.;  Ontario  Silver 
Company,  100  h.p.;  The  Carborundum  Company,  300 
h.p.;  Monastery  of  Mount  Carmel,  100  h.p. 

Since  the  large  power  developments  have  been 
started  on  the  Canadian  side,  contractors  on  the 
three  plants  have  been  taking  from  The  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  and  the  Canadian  Niagara 
Power  Company  approximately,  1,000  h.p.,  most 
of  which  is  utilized  by  means  of  induction  motors 
for  the  driving  of  air  compressors  which  supply  the 
drills,  and  other  appliances  used  in  excavation. 
Power  is  also  used  for  lighting,  for  traveling  cranes 
and  for  machine  shops.  The  amounts  used  by  each 
contractor  are  as  follows: 

By  A.  C.  Douglass,  in  excavating  the  tunnels  of 
the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company  and  of  the 
Toronto  &  Niagara  Power  development,  400  h.p.; 
by  the  Jenckes  Machine  Company  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  steel  pipe  line  for  the  Ontario  Power 
Company's  development,  200  h.p.;  by  M.  P.  Davis 
in  excavation  of  wheelpit  for  the  Toronto  &  Niagara 
Power  Company,  _|OO  h.p. 


Long-distance  Tenants  of  the  Niag- 
ara Falls  Power  Company 

THE    CATARACT    POWER    &    CONDUIT    COM- 
PANY 

THE  Cataract  Power  &  Conduit  Company  is  the 
distributor,  within  the  city  of  Buffalo,  of  power 
generated  by  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany. 

The  three  tri-phase  transmission  lines  from  Niagara 
are  carried  into  a  transforming  station  known  as  the 
Terminal  House,  located  at  the  foot  of  Ontario  street 
on  lands  abutting  on  the  Erie  Canal.  The  power  is 
received  at  the  line  pressure  of  22,000  volts  and  all 
Niagara  power  used  in  Buffalo  is  there  transformed  in 
pressure  from  22,000  volts  to  11,000  volts. 

The  transmission  lines  enter  the  building  from  dif- 
ferent routes,  two  of  the  circuits  carried  by  No.  i 
pole  line  following  the  Erie  Canal  from  Tonawanda, 
while  the  third  circuit  carried  by  No.  2  pole  line  parallels 
the  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R.  from  Tonawanda  to  Ontario 
street,  Buffalo,  and  thence  follows  Ontario  street  to  the 
station. 

Entering  the  building,  each  conductor  passes  through 
a  heavy  porcelain  tube  inserted  in  a  pine  board  one  inch 
thick.  The  tube,  twelve  inches  in  length,  is  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  about  thirty  degrees  with  the  horizontal, 
the  lowest  point  being  outside  the  building.  A  metallic 
awning  extends  over  the  lines  outside  the  building  and 
serves  as  a  protection  against  rain  and  snow.  Inside 
the  building,  the  circuits  consist  of  rubber-covered, 
single-conductor  cables  supported  on  Niagara  type  in- 
sulators attached  to  seasoned  and  well  oiled  Georgia 
pine.  There  is  a  22,ooo-volt  switchboard  in  each  end 

145 


146  The    Niagara    Falls 

of  the  building — three  panels  at  one  end  and  two  at 
the  other.  These  switchboards  are  equipped  with  non- 
automatic  "circuit  breakers,  some  being  of  the  swinging 
arm  air  break  form,  while  others  are  of  the  oil  type.  The 
latter  are  operated  electrically  by  means  of  auxiliary  con- 
trolling switches  located  at  a  distance. 

As  stated  above,  all  power  used  in  Buffalo  is  trans- 
formed in  pressure  at  this  station.  For  this  purpose 
there  are  in  use  nine  2,250-kw.  oil-insulated,  water- 
cooled  step-down  transformers  having  a  transforma- 


\Vilkeson    Street     Station 
Buffalo  General  Electric 

Company 

The  Cataract  Power   and 
Conduit  Company 


tion  ratio  of  two  to  one.  These  transformers  are  con- 
nected in  delta  in  banks  of  three  each.  Their  secondary 
leads  pass  to  a  double  set  of  bus-bars  forming  part  of 
an  n,ooo-volt  switchboard  consisting  of  eleven  panels. 
Mounted  on  each  of  these  panels  are  indicating  and 
integrating  wattmeters ;  two  oil  type  feeder  switches 
by  means  of  which  connection  can  be  made  to  either 
set  of  bus-bars ;  and  controlling  switches  and  signal 
lights  connected  with  the  automatic  oil  type  circuit 
breakers,  which  are  placed  above  the  switchboard 
structure. 

The    iijOOO-volt    current    is    carried    under    ground 


Electrical   Handbook  147 

from  the  Terminal  House  to  three  substations  of  The 
Cataract  Power  &  Conduit  Company  and  to  five  sub- 
stations belonging  to  the  International  Railway  Com- 
pany. The  Terminal  House  itself  also  serves  as  one 
substation. 

At  the  Terminal  House  are  installed  nine  25O-kw. 
air-blast  transformers,  receiving  n,ooo-volt  current  and 
transforming  it  to  a  pressure  of  2,200  volts,  at  which 


Transformer  Room,  Wilkeson  Street  Substation 
The  Cataract  Power  and  Conduit  Company 

pressure  it  is  carried  overhead  to  consumers,  consisting 
mainly  of  manufacturers  located  in  North  Buffalo. 
Seven  feeder  panels  are  used  for  the  control  of  the 
2,2OO-volt  distributing  circuits.  These  panels  are 
equipped  with  integrating  wattmeters,  a  double  set  of 
bus-bars  and  oil  switches,  and  also  with  automatic 
overload  and  reverse  current  circuit  breakers.  The 
transformers  are  connected  in  delta.  The  air  blast  is 
supplied  by  a  blower  connected  direct  to  an  induction 
motor. 


148 


The    Niagara    Falls 


Of  the  other  substations  owned  and  operated  by  The 
Cataract  Power  &  Conduit  Company,  No.  2  is  located 
at  Ohio  street  and  Love  alley,  No.  3  is  located  at  Wil- 
keson  street  and  No.  4  at  Babcock  and  Hanna  streets. 
These  three  substations  receive  current  from  the  under- 
ground circuits  at  11,000  volts  and  transform  it  to  2,200 
volts.  In  general,  the  secondary  distribution  is  by  means 
of  overhead  conductors,  but  in  a  few  cases,  by  means  of 
underground  cables. 

Substations  No.  2  and  No.  4  are  purely  step-down 
stations,  the  former  being  equipped  with  oil-insulated, 
water-cooled  transformers, 
and  the  latter  with  air-blast 
transformers.  They  supply 
manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  their  respective 
districts. 

Substation  No.  3  is 
equipped  with  air-blast 
transformers.  Its  princi- 
pal load  is  that  of  the 
Buffalo  General  Electric 
Company,  whose  plant 
is  located  in  the  same 
building.  Current  is  de- 
livered to  the  Buffalo 
General  Electric  Company  in  the  form  of  352-volt, 
3-phase,  25-cycle  current  and  is  transformed  to  550- 
volt  direct  current  for  power  purposes;  to  oo-cycle, 
2,4OO-volt,  2-phase  current  for  commercial  incandescent 
lighting;  to  22O-volt  direct  current  for  an  Edison  3-wire 
system  operated  in  connection  with  a  6,ooo-ampcre~ 
storage  battery;  and  to  direct  current  for  series  arc 
street  lighting  circuits.  For  the  transformation  to  550- 
volt  direct  current,  rotary  converters  are  used.  For 
the  frequency  changers  and  for  the  Edison  system, 
motor  generator  sets  are  utilized,  while  for  the  arc 
lighting  service  synchronous  motors  connected  direct 
to  Brush  arc  machines  are  employed.  These  arc  ma- 
chines deliver  a  current  of  6.8  amperes  and  each  is 


Induction  Motor 

The  Cataract  Power  and  Conduit 

Company 


Electrical   Handbook 


140 


capable  of  supplying  125  arc  lights  in  series.  The  fre- 
quency changers  are  driven  by  synchronous  motors, 
while  the  charging  sets  for  the  Edison  3-wire  circuits 
are  driven  by  induction  motors,  the  largest  being  rated 
at  1,200  h.p.  In  addition  to  the  power  used  by  the 
Buffalo  General  Electric  Company,  this  substation  sup- 
plies power  to  a  large  hotel  and  to  two  department 
stores  and  to  other  miscellaneous  users.  The  25-cycle 
current  is  used  in  many  cases  directly  for  incandescent 
lighting,  the  excellent  speed  regulation  and  the  uniform 


Switchboard  Room  at  the  Great  Northern  Elevator 
The  Cataract  Power  and  Conduit  Company 

angular  velocity  of  the  generators  at  the  Falls  making 
this  current  entirely  satisfactory  for  lighting  purposes. 
To  the  substations  of  the  International  Railway 
Company  current  is  delivered  at  11,000  volts  from 
underground  circuits  consisting  of  triple-conductor, 
paper-insulated,  lead-covered  cables  laid  in  tile  conduits. 
The  equipments  of  the  various  stations  are  similar,  each 
consisting  of  air-blast  transformers  and  converters,  by 
means  of  which  the  n,ooo-volt,  3-phase  current  is  trans- 
formed into  550  to  6oo-volt  direct  current.  From  May 
1st  to  October  ist,  the  International  Railway  Company 


150  The   Niagara    Falls 

operates  its  entire  system  by  Niagara  power.  During 
the  winter  months  an  auxiliary  steam  plant  is  operated 
to  take  care  of  the  peak  loads. 

Niagara  power  supplied  through  The  Cataract  Power 
&  Conduit  Company  has  been  applied  in  Buffalo  to 
varied  uses  in  establishments  of  many  kinds,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  Grain  eleva- 
tors, cereal  mills,  foundries,  machine  shops,  malt  houses, 
tanneries,  electrolytic  and  chemical  manufactories,  ship 
yards,  dry  docks,  packing  houses,  metal  stamping  works, 
structural  steel  works,  manufactories  of  jewelers'  sup- 
plies, car  wheel  factories,  weaving  and  belting  factories, 
rubber  re-claiming  works,  steel  and  malleable  iron 
foundries,  breweries,  bakeries,  silk-throwing  establish- 
ments, flouring  mills,  railroad  shops,  box  factories,  de- 
partment stores,  hotels,  central  station  and  isolated 
lighting  plants,  street  railway  power  houses,  and  manu- 
factories of  steam  and  hot  water  radiators,  brass  and 
iron  beds,  dental  supplies,  linseed  oil,  gasoline  engines, 
varnish,  cordage,  head-lights,  refrigerators,  refrigerat- 
ing machines,  automobiles,  rubber  goods,  cast  iron  pipe 
and  fertilizers. 

INTERNATIONAL  RAILWAY  COMPANY 

THE  system  of  the  International  Railway  Company 
presents  many  features  which  are  of  great  inter- 
est to  engineers.     Operating  over  360  miles  of 
track,  its  cars  traverse  all  the  principal  streets  of 
Niagara  Falls  and  Buffalo,  and  serve  all  the  important 
neighboring  towns. 

Crossing  the  company's  beautiful  steel  arch  bridge, 
just  below  the  falls  of  Niagara,  the  tourist  is  carried 
eight  miles  northward  to  the  historic  town  of  Queens- 
ton,  or  three  miles  southward  to  the  ancient  village  of 
Chippewa.  Both  these  places  can  be  visited  conveniently 
on  a  single  trip  without  changing  cars.  The  scenery  be- 
tween them  is  beautiful  and  unique,  and  possesses  much 
historic  interest. 

In  going  from  Niagara  Falls  to  Buffalo,  a  distance  of 
twenty-three  miles,  the  cars  pass  along  the  Niagara  River 


Electrical    Handbook 


I  $2 


The    Niagara    Falls 


through  the  village  of  La  Salle  and  the  cities  of  Tona- 
wanda  and  North  Tonawanda.  At  the  latter  point  con- 
nection is  made  with  the  line  to  the  city  of  Lockport,  the 
town  of  Olcott,  and  the  villages  of  Charlottville,  Burt  and 
Newfane.  Lockport  is  thirteen  miles  and  Olcott  twenty- 
six  miles  from  the  North  Tonawanda  Junction,  which  is 
situated  about  midway  between  Niagara  Falls  and  Buf- 
falo. Running  east  from  Buffalo  are  lines  to  the  towns 
of  Lancaster  and  Depew,  eleven  miles  distant. 

On  its  interurban  routes  the  company  has  provided 
elegant,  roomy  cars  with  comfortable  steam-coach  seats 
and  broad  windows.  These  cars  are  operated  by  the 


Passenger  Train  on  the  Buffalo-Niagara  Falls  Division 
The  International  Railway  Company 

multiple-unit  system  of  control,  either  singly  or  in  trains 
as  the  service  may  demand. 

The  motive  power  used  on  the  system  is  entirely  elec- 
trical and  is  derived  from  the  hydraulic  power  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  from  an  auxiliary  steam  plant  in  Buffalo. 
Storage  batteries  are  used  to  carry  peak  loads.  During 
a  portion  of  the  year  the  operation  is  entirely  by  power 
taken  from  the  Falls. 

The  power  used  locally  in  the  Niagara  Falls  district 
is  taken  partly  from  the  Railway  Company's  hydraulic 
plant  near  Table  Rock,  on  the  Canadian  bank  of  the 
river,  and  partly  from  its  rotary  converter  plant  in 
Power  House  No.  i  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany. 


Electrical   Handbook 


153 


The  hydraulic  plant  receives  its  water  in  a  fore-bay 
just  above  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  and  discharges  through 
a  tunnel  600  feet  in  length,  having  its  outlet  at  the  face 
of  the  cliff  close  beside  the  Falls.  The  effective  head  of 
water  is  62  feet.  The  plant  contains  two  1,000  h.p.  45- 
inch  vertical  turbines  of  the  Globe  type,  bevel-geared  to 
line  shafting,  from  which  are  belted  five  2OO-kw.  railway 
generators  and  one  2OO-kw.  feeder  booster.  There  is 
also  in  process  of  installation  one  2,000  h.p.  175  r.  p.  m. 


View  in  Victoria  Park,  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario 
The  International  Railway  Company 

turbine  of  the  single  Francis  type.  This  turbine  is  direct- 
connected  to  a  i,5OO-kw.  double  commutator,  vertical 
shaft,  General  Electric  railway  generator.  The  power 
house  is  arranged  to  accommodate  three  more  of  the 
i,5OO-kw.  generators  when  conditions  may  require  them. 

The  plant  in  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  House  No.  i 
consists  of  three  4OO-kw.  quarter-phase,  25-cycle,  rotary 
converters. 

At  Paynes  avenue,  North  Tonawanda,  where  the 
Buffalo  &  Niagara  Falls  and  the  Buffalo  &  Lockport  lines 
cross,  is  located  one  of  the  new  modern  substations. 


154 


The    Niagara    Falls 


This  station  receives  3-phase  22,000  volt,  25-cycle  cur- 
rent from  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  trans- 
mission line.  The  station  equipment  consists  of  three 
4OO-kw.  General  Electric  3-phase  rotary  converters.  The 
a.  c.  current  for  each  rotary  is  stepped  down  from 
22,000  volts  to  375  volts  by  a  bank  of  three  i5O-k\v.  air- 
blast  transformers.  The  rotaries  are  started  by  means  of 
double-throw  switches  connected  on  one  side  to  half  volt- 
age taps  and  on  the  other  side  to  full  voltage  terminals 


Electric  Locomotive 
The  International  Railway  Company 

on  the  secondaries  of  the  transformers.  This  method  of 
starting  obviates  the  loss  of  time  and  the  uncertainties  of 
synchronizing. 

This  station  contains  a  288-cell  1,000  h.p.  (one  hour 
rate)  storage  battery  with  motor  generator  booster 
for  control.  There  are  also  high  tension  and  direct  cur- 
rent lightning  arresters,  reactive  coils,  blower  sets  for 
cooling  transformers  and  ventilating  battery  room,  air 
compressor  for  cleaning  machinery  and  complete  modern 
a.  c.  and  d.  c.  switchboards. 


Electrical    Handbook  155 

A  feature  of  the  station  is  the  absolute  safety  in  the 
arrangement  of  22,ooo-volt  bus  bars  and  other  high  pres- 
sure devices.  The  bus  bars  are  installed  in  separate 
brick  and  concrete  compartments,  where  it  would  be  un- 
likely for  a  person  accidentally  to  come  in  contact  with 
them,  and  where  short-circuits  would  be  quite  impossible. 
The  current  on  the  incoming  and  outgoing  22,ooo-volt 
lines  and  also  on  the  primaries  of  the  transformers,  is 
controlled  by  means  of  automatic  oil-switches.  The 
switches  are  of  the  remote  control  type,  so  that  at  the 
switchboard  panels,  where  the  operator  is  engaged,  there 


Fruit  and  Produce  Train  on  Lockport  Division 
The  International  Railway  Company 

is  nothing  but  low  pressure  current  to  be  handled.  The 
current  for  operating  the  oil-switch  motors  is  taken  from 
a  u5-volt  storage  battery. 

The  high  pressure  current  for  the  Lockport  and  Olcott 
substations  passes  through*  switches  in  this  station,  and 
the  power  used  by  all  three  stations  is  measured  at  this 
point  by  graphic  recording  wattmeters. 

The  Lockport  and  Olcott  substations  are  fed  by  the 
railway  company's  22,ooo-volt  transmission  line. 

The  Lockport  station  contains  the  same  number,  type 
and  capacity  of  machines  and  batteries  as  the  Tonawanda 
station,  with  some  modifications  of  arrangement. 


156  The    Niagara    Falls 

The  Olcott  substation  contains  two  4OO-kw.  rotaries, 
with  the  necessary  auxiliaries,  and  a  go-kw.  i,O4O-volt 
single-phase  alternator  for  lighting  the  Park  and  hotel 
property.  The  alternator  is  belted  to  the  shaft  of  one  of 
the  rotaries. 

A  feature  of  the  Tonawanda-Lockport-Olcott  system 
is  the  freight  service.  Two  40-1011  electric  locomotives 
are  constantly  employed  in  the  transferring  of  freight  for 
the  steam  roads  and  in  hauling  between  towns.  A  large 
part  of  the  traffic  is  in  fruit  from  the  luxuriant  orchards 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario. 

The  steam-plant  of  the  Railway  Company  is  situated 
at  Niagara  and  School  streets,  in  the  City  of  Buffalo,  on 


Upper  Steel  Arch  liridge  at  Night 
The  International  Railway  Company 

the  line  of  the  Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls  road.  It  con- 
tains two  modern  Corliss  engines  of  the  Allis-Chalmers 
make,  driving  i,soo-kw.  n,ooo-volt,  25-cycle  alternators 
of  General  Electric  Company  revolving  field  type.  There 
are  also  three  8oo-kw.  d.  c.  railway  generators,  direct 
connected  to  upright  Lake  Erie  engines,  and  a  286-celI 
i,8co  h.p  (one  hour  rating)  storage  battery. 

Part  of  the  power  house  is  occupied  by  a  rotary  con- 
verter plant,  consisting  of  four  4OO-kw.  25-cycle  rotaries. 

This  station  is  fully  equipped  with  modern  switching 
devices,  embracing  11,000  volt  bus  bars  individually  iso- 
lated in  brick  and  concrete  compartments,  automatic 
motor-driven  oil-switches  with  remote  control,  and  latest 
type  of  alternating  and  direct  current  switchboards. 


Electrical   Handbook  157 

That  part  of  the  alternating  current  switchboard 
which  accommodates  the  hand-operated  control  switches, 
rheostats,  indicator  lamps,  etc.,  is  assembled  in  the  form 
of  a  benchboard.  The  indicating  and  recording  instru- 
ments are  situated  on  panels  several  feet  above  this 
benchboard,  allowing  the  attendant  to  look  out  over  the 
station  between  the  instrument  and  controlling  panels. 

The  Niagara  power  used  in  the  City  of  Buffalo  is  taken 
in  the  form  of  n.ooo-volt,  25-cycle,  3-phase  current, 
from  the  Cataract  Power  and  Conduit  Company's  ter- 
minal house  located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city. 
This  current  is  delivered  to  the  various  substations  by 
means  of  underground  lead-covered  ii,ooovolt  cable. 
The  Cataract  Power  &  Conduit  Company  is  the  local 
retailer  of  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  power,  and  re- 
ceives the  Niagara  power  from  the  22,ooo-volt  overhead 
transmission  lines. 

The  Railway  Company's  substations  are  located  at 
Seneca  and  Elk  streets,  at  Walden  avenue  and  Belt  Line, 
and  at  Virginia  and  Washington  streets,  the  last  named 
being  the  largest,  newest  and  most  interesting.  This 
station  is  located  approximately  at  the  load  centre  of  the 
city  system,  and,  in  addition  to  its  equipment  of  four 
i,ooo-kw.  6-ph'ase  rotary  converters,  has  two  288-cell 
1,500  h.p  (on  one  hour  rating)  storage  batteries. 

Each  rotary  converter  receives  its  current  directly 
from  the  secondaries  of  one  3-phase  air-cooled 
transformer.  The  starting  of  the  rotaries  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  switches  connected  to  one-third, 
two-third  and  full-voltage  taps  on  the  secondaries  of  the 
transformers.  Reactive  coils  are  in  circuit  with  the  ro- 
taries, and  the  machines  are  equipped  with  speed  limiting 
and  mechanical  end-play  devices. 

The  alternating  current  for  this  station  is  received 
over  11,000  volt,  paper-insulated,  lead-covered  cables 
leading  from  the  steam  plant.  Both  Niagara  Falls 
power  and  steam-generated  power  are  used. 

The  high  pressure  bus  bars,  as  in  the  steam  plant,  are 
carefully  isolated  in  masonry  compartments,  located  in 
the  capacious  air  pit  under  the  air-blast  transformers  and 


1 58  The    Niagara    Falls 

oil-switches.  All  oil-switches  can  be  separated  com- 
pletely from  the  bus  bars  for  repairs  by  means  of  knife 
blade  type  "disconnecting  switches." 

The  new  Entz  system  of  regulation  is  here  used  with 
the  storage  batteries.  The  fluctuations  of  station  load 
are  reduced  by  this  below  ten  per  cent. 

This  station  is  arranged  to  receive  three  more  of  the 
i,ooo-kw.  rotaries  and  one  more  storage  battery.  As  the 
batteries,  when  fully  charged,  are  good  for  1,300  kw. 
each,  and  the  rotaries  are  capable  of  fifty  per  cent,  over- 
load, the  station  has  an  ultimate  capacity  of  14,400  kw. 
for  an  hour,  which  is  the  usual  duration  of  the  highest 
peaks. 

The  other  substations,  as  well  as  the  steam  plant,  have 
ample  arrangement  for  accommodation  of  additional  ma- 
chinery to  take  care  of  increased  traffic. 

The  power  houses  and  substations  of  the  International 
Railway  Company  are  open  to  visiting  engineers  who 
may  be  interested  in  making  an  inspection  of  them. 

TON  AW  AND  A  POWER  COMPANY 

THE  Tonawanda  Power  Company  bears  to  the 
cities  of  Tonawanda  and  North  Tonawanda 
the   same   relation   that   the   Cataract   Power 
and    Conduit   Company  does   to   the   City  of 
Buffalo,  namely,  that  of  local   distributor  of  power 
generated    and    transmitted    by    The    Niagara    Falls 
Power   Company. 

About  2,200  h.  p.  is  delivered  to  the  Tonawanda 
Power  Company,  which  is  used  for  street  arc  light- 
ing, commercial  and  residence  incandescent  lighting, 
and  for  varied  industrial  enterprises,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  paper  mills,  nut  and  bolt  works, 
flouring  mills,  machine  shops,  and  the  manufacture 
of  abrasives. 

The  station  is  located  in  North  Tonawanda  on 
Robinson  street  at  its  junction  with  the  right  of  way 
for  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  22,ooo-volt 
transmission  lines, 


Electrical   Handbook  159 

The  transformer  installation  consists  of  two  banks 
of  step-down  transformers,  aggregating  3,000  kw.  in 
capacity,  from  which  secondary  voltages  of  360  volts, 
or  of  4,400  volts  may  be  obtained.  These  transform- 
ers are  connected  in  delta.  The  lighting  apparatus 
consists  of  induction  motors  driving  6o-cycle,  2,300- 
volt,  2-phase  alternators,  and  of  three  constant  cur- 
rent transformers  for  the  operation  of  the  series  arc 
system  used  for  street  lighting.  For  general  power 
distribution,  4,4OO-volt  current  direct  from  the  trans- 
formers is  used.  All  of  the  local  distribution  is  by 
means  of  overhead  circuits. 

Adjoining  the  plant  of  the  Tonawanda  Power 
Company  is  the  section-house  of  The  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  through  which  are  carried  the 
three  tri-phase  transmission  lines.  In  this  section- 
house  are  installed  sectionalizing  switches  arranged 
in  such  a  way  in  combination  with  bus-bars  that 
either  of  the  three  transmission  lines  may  be  cut  at 
this  point,  and  so  that  any  desired  combination  of 
lines  or  sections  of  lines  in  parallel  may  be  effected. 
Arrangements  are  also  provided  for  transferring  the 
load  of  the  Tonawanda  Power  Company  and  of  the 
Lockport  transmission  line  to  any  of  the  three  main 
transmission  lines. 

THE  LOCKPORT  GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  LIGHT 
COMPANY 

THE   Lockport   Gas  and   Electric  Light   Com- 
pany   distributes    in    the    City    of    Lockport, 
power  delivered  by  The  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company.     The    power    is    delivered    at    the 
Power    Company's   section-house    in     North     Tona- 
wanda and  is  transmitted  to  Lockport  by  a  22,000- 
volt  branch  transmission  line  belonging  to  the  Inter- 
national Railway  Company  under  a  special  arrange- 
ment with  that  company. 

Twenty-two  thousand-volt,  3-phase  current  is  re- 
ceived in  the  transforming  station  in  Lockport,  from 


160  The    Niagara    Falls 

which  point  it  is  transmitted  at  2,2OO-volts,  2-phase, 
to  the  larger  users  of  power  for  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, and  to  the  lighting  company's  distributing  sta- 
tion. At  the  latter  point,  by  means  of  step-down 
transformers  and  converters,  it  is  further  trans- 
formed into  direct  current  for  public  and  domes- 
tic lighting,  and  for  other  purposes  for  which  direct 
current  may  be  required.  The  amount  of  Niagara 
power  used  is  approximately  500  h.  p.,  the  additional 
requirements  being  met  by  a  local  water  power 
development  taking  water  from  the  Erie  Canal. 


PART  IV 

NIAGARA   POWER   DEVELOP- 
MENT IN  CANADA 


Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company 

THE  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company  was 
incorporated  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature 
of  the  Province  of  Ontario  in  the  year  1892, 
which  act  confirms  a  certain  agreement, 
dated  April  7,  1892,  with  the  Commissioners  for  the 
Queen  Victoria  Niagara  Falls  Park,  providing  that 
the  Power  Company  shall  have  the  right,  for  one 
hundred  years,  to  construct  and  operate  works  with- 
in the  Park,  by  means  of  canals,  wheelpits  and  tun- 
nels for  the  development  of  electrical  and  pneumatic 
power  for  transmission,  distribution  and  sale  with- 
out the  Park.  This  company  is  an  allied  company 
of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  which  has 
built  the  two  power  houses  on  the  American  side 
heretofore  described,  and  it  now  has  under  construc- 
tion a  development  of  110,000  e.h.p.,  20,000  e.h.p.  of 
which  it  is  expected  will  be  ready  for  transmission 
and  delivery  on  December  I,  1904,  and  30,000  e.h.p. 
additional  within  a  few  months  thereafter,  while  the 
water  connections,  wheelpit  and  tunnel,  have  been 
constructed  already  for  the  full  110,000  e.h.p.  This 
company  had  the  first  choice  of  location  for  power 
development  works  within  the  Park  and  will  be  the 
first  power  company  to  produce  power  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  of  the  Falls. 

In  general,  the  hydraulic  development  of  the  Cana- 
dian power  house  will  be  similar  to  that  of  the  Ameri- 
can plants  of  The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company. 
The  power  house  is  situated  in  the  Queen  Victoria 
Niagara  Falls  Park,  about  half  a  mile  above  the 
Horseshoe  Falls.  The  water  is  taken  in  from  the 
river  through  a  short  canal  and  forebay,  discharged 
through  penstocks  into  turbines  near  the  bottom  of  a 

163 


i64 


The    N  i  a  P  a  r  a    Falls 


wheelpit,  and  carried  away  to  the  lower  river  through 
a  tunnel  about  2,000  feet  in  length. 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  plant  is  the 
size  of  the  generating  units,  each  of  which  is  to  have 
a  capacity  of  10,000  h.p., — the  largest  machines  which 
have  thus  far  been  constructed.  The  plant,  when 
completed,  will  include  eleven  of  these  generators. 
A  unit  of  this  size  was  adopted  for  reasons  of  econo- 
my in  hydraulic  development  and  in  electrical  equip- 
ment. These  10,000  h.p.  units  occupy  but  little  more 
space  than  those  of  5,000  h.p.  Thus  results  a  great 
reduction  in  length  of  wheelpit  and  power  house  for 


Power  House 
The  Canadian  Niagara  Povvi 


a  given  horse-power  output.  Furthermore,  the  gen- 
erators cost  considerably  less  per  horse-power  than 
those  of  5,ooo  h.p.  capacity. 

The  generators  will  have  vertical  shafts,  and  are 
wound  for  three-phase  current,  11,000  volts,  25  cycles 
at  250  revolutions  per  minute.  This  high  generated 
voltage  was  selected  for  economy  in  local  distribution 
of  power.  The  cost  of  distributing  underground  at 
11,000  volts,  three-phase,  is  about  one-fifth  that  re- 
quired for  a  2,2OO-volt,  two-phase  system.  For  long- 
distance transmission  step-up  transformers  have  been 
installed  in  a  transformer  house  outside  of  the  Park  and 
will  be  used  to  raise  the  voltage  to  22,000,  40,000,  or 


Electrical    Handbook 


i66  T  h  c    Ar  /  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 

60,000  volts,  depending  upon  the  distance  of  trans- 
mission. Three-phase  was  decided  upon  rather  than 
two-phase  for  the  reason  that  one  less  conductor  is 
required,  which  simplifies  cable  connections,  and 
because  the  three-phase  system  requires  twenty-five 
per  cent,  less  copper  for  transmission  than  one  of 
two-phase  for  the  same  voltage.  Power  from  this 
plant  will  be  distributed  by  means  of  No.  ooo  B.  &  S. 
triple  conductor,  lead-covered  cables  laid  in  ducts 
underground. 

It  is  the  intention  to  have  cable  connections  so 
that  the  power  house  of  the  Canadian  Niagara 
Power  Company  can  operate,  if  desired,  in  parallel 
with  either  or  both  of  the  power  houses  of  The  Ni- 
agara Falls  Power  Company  on  the  American  side. 
The  output  of  the  Canadian  Niagara  Power  Company 
will  be  used  primarily  for  Canadian  industries  and  for 
public  utilities  in  the  Province  of  Ontario  within  the 
range  of  long-distance  transmission  from  the  power 
house.  When  used  upon  the  American  side,  the  gen- 
erated current  will  he  carried  across  the  Niagara 
River  by  way  of  the  Upper  Steel  Arch  Bridge,  a  total 
distance  of  about  three  and  one-half  miles.  This 
n,ooo-volt,  3-phase  current  will  be  changed  on  the 
American  side  by  step-down  transformers  to  2,200 
volts,  2-phase  for  paralleling,  or  will  be  delivered 
direct  to  tenants  of  the  American  Company.  A  part 
of  the  output  may  be  sent  to  Buffalo  by  a  transmis- 
sion line  to  be  built  along  the  Canadian  side  of  the 
Niagara  river  from  the  Park  to  Fort  Erie,  a  com- 
plete right  of  way  for  which  has  been  obtained. 


Electrical    Handbook  167 


The  Electrical  Development  Com- 
pany of  Ontario,  Limited,  and  The 
Toronto  6§f  Niagara  Power  Com- 
pany 

THE   world-wide   fame   of   Niagara   Falls   has   for 
many  years  attracted  the  engineers  of  all  nations, 
and  they  have  been  at  work  devising  means  for 
utilizing  the  great  power  in  these  Falls.     So  dif- 
ficult and  varied  are  the  many  problems  connected  with 
the  installation  of  the  plants  necessary  for  the  utilizing 
of  this  power  that  it  has  taken  the  combined  efforts  of  the 
best  engineers  of  the  world  to  devise  apparatus  and  plant 
which  have  made  possible  the  development  of  thousands 
of   horse-power  within   comparatively   small   limits,  and 
the  transmission  of  this  power  to  cities  many  miles  dis- 
tant. 

As  the  development  of  power  for  use  within  a  few 
miles  of  Niagara  Falls  advanced,  the  progress  made  was 
anxiously  watched  by  the  citizens  of  Toronto  with  the 
hope  that  some  day  the  power  available  on  the  Canadian 
side  of  Niagara  Falls  might  be  utilized  to  furnish  light 
and  power  to  the  Queen  City.  Among  the  anxious 
watchers,  perhaps  the  keenest  and  the  ones  to  realize 
most  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  Niagara  power 
transmitted  to  Toronto,  was  a  syndicate  composed  of 
Messrs.  Frederic  Nicholls,  H.  M.  Pellatt  and  Wm. 
Mackenzie.  From  its  connection  with  Canada's  greatest 
developments  and  chief  manufacturing  companies  this 
syndicate  was  probably  better  fitted  than  any  other  com- 
bination of  business  men  in  Canada  to  undertake  the 
organization  and  management  of  the  companies  neces- 
sary for  the  development  of  a  large  power  at  Niagara 
Falls  and  the  transmission  of  this  power  to  Toronto  and 
other  points  in  Ontario  where  it  is  to  be  utilized. 

1 68 


Electrical   Handbook 


169 


After  the  long  distance  transmissions  at  high  voltages 
in  the  West  and  in  Mexico  had  demonstrated  satisfac- 
torily the  commercial  practicability  of  long  distance 


transmission,  the  syndicate  proceeded  to  obtain  the  nec- 
essary rights  for  a  large  hydro-electric  development  at 
Niagara  Falls.  On  January  2Qth,  1903,  an  agreement 
was  entered  into  between  the  Queen  Victoria  Niagara 


ijo  The    X  in  gar  a    Falls 

Falls  Park  Commissioners  and  the  syndicate  granting 
it  rights  to  take  water  from  the  Niagara  River  at  Temp- 
est Point  for  the  purpose  of  generating  electricity  to  the 
extent  of  125,000  electrical  horse-power.  On  the  i8th 
of  February  following,  the  Electrical  Development 
Company  of  Ontario,  Limited,  was  incorporated  by 
letters  patent  under  the  authority  of  the  Legislature 
of  Ontario.  This  company  has  a  capital  stock  of 
$6,occ,oco.  At  a  meeting  of  its  shareholders,  held  on 
March  2ist,  1903,  the  agreement  above  mentioned  which 
had  been  made  with  the  Park  Commissioners,  was  ac- 
quired by  the  company.  Although  the  Canadian  Niagara 
Power  Company  and  the  Ontario  Power  Company  had 
already  obtained  sites  by  agreement  with  the  Park  Com- 
missioners for  the  location  of  their  power  plants,  the 
engineers  engaged  by  the  syndicate  to  select  a  site  chose 
one  which  appears  to  be  second  to  neither  of  those  of 
the  companies  just  mentioned.  Its  location  on  the 
river  bank  is  such  that  the  flow  of  ice.  which  is  con- 
siderable in  the  river  in  the  early  spring,  will  not 
interfere  with  the  operation  of  the  plant,  as  at  this  point 
the  ice  follows  channels  some  distance  from  the  power 
house  site,  and  only  occasional  small  gatherings  of  ice 
will  pass  near  the  power  house.  On  account  of  the 
construction  of  the  tail  race  tunnel  directly  below  the 
Niagara  River  in  a  straight  line  between  the  wheel- 
pit  at  the  power  house  and  the  foot  of  the  Horseshoe 
Falls,  a  shorter  tail  race  than  that  of  the  Canadian 
Niagara  Power  Company  will  be  obtained,  and  also  it 
will  be  much  shorter  than  the  supply  pipes  of  the  On- 
tario Power  Company. 

While  the  agreement  with  the  Park  Commissioners 
was  being  considered,  a  second  company — the  Toronto 
and  Niagara  Power  Company — was  organized  by  the 
syndicate  above  mentioned.  The  charter  of  this  com- 
pany gave  the  right  to  transmit  power  and  acquire 
a  right  of  way  for  the  transmission  line.  Incident- 
ally the  right  of  expropriation  of  lands  was  ob- 
tained. This  company  has  already  purchased  a  right 
of  way  seventy-eight  and  fifty-eight  hundredths  miles 


Electrical    Handbook 


171 


in  length  between  Niagara  Falls  and  Toronto,  eighty 
feet  wide  at  its  narrowest  point.  The  line  is  practically 
straight  between  the  limits  of  the  City  of  Toronto  and 


Burlington  Beach,  near  Hamilton,  and  also  between 
Burlington  Beach  and  Niagara  Falls.  Its  width  and 
grade  are  such  that  a  double  track  railway  can  also  be 
operated  upon  it  after  the  construction  of  the  transmis- 
sion lines,  should  future  developments  warrant  it. 


If  2 


T  h  c    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Palls 


With  a  view  to  providing  manufacturing  sites  for 
industries  which  may  desire  to  locate  near  Niagara 
Falls  in  order  to  use  the  power  of  the  Electrical  De- 
velopment Company,  some  5,30  acres  of  land  have  been 
purchased  fronting  on  the  Chippewa  River,  situate;! 
about  two  miles  from  Niagara  Falls,  and  only  three 
and  one-half  miles  from  the  point  where  the  Chippewa 
River  has  entrance  to  the  Welland  Canal  as  shown 
on  the  map  on  page  171.  These  lands  have  a  river  front- 
age of  one  and  one-half  miles.  It  is  expected  that  indus- 


Constructing  Coffer  Dam  at  the  Cascade 
The  Electrical  Development  Company  of  Ontario.  Limited 

trial  plants  of  various  sorts,  and  especially  electrochem- 
ical plants,  will  be  established  on  this  site. 

On  the  second  of  April,  1903,  work  was  begun  at 
Niagara  Falls  and  has  been  energetically  pushed  ever 
since  both  as  to  the  development  at  Niagara  and  as  to 
the  transmission  plant.  The  general  plan  of  develop- 
ment at  the  hydraulic  plant  of  the  Electrical  Develop- 
ment Company  may  be  described  as  below  and  is  further 
shown  by  the  plan  and  illustrations.  The  swift  mov- 
ing waters  as  they  passed  Tempest  Point  previous  to 


Electrical    Handbook  17$ 

tne  commencement  of  work  by  the  Electrical  Develop- 
ment Company,  seemed  to  defy  human  powers  to  con- 
struct in  their  swiftest  part  a  coffer  dam  which  could 
reclaim  the  river  bed  which  has  been  covered  by- 
Niagara's  flow  for  countless  centuries.  But  the  irre- 
pressible engineer  has  by  pluck  and  skill  constructed 
a  coffer  dam  as  shown  on  the  plan.  As  the  work  on 
the  coffer  dam  progressed,  the  difficulties  of  its  con- 
struction which  had  appeared  serious  enough  in  the  be- 
ginning grew  greater.  When  the  cascade  indicated  on 
the  plan  was  reached  instead  of  a  depth  of  eight  feet  of 
water,  as  had  been  expected,  twenty-four  feet  of  water 
were  found,  and  that,  too,  just  where  the  water  falls 
about  eight  feet.  The  coffer  dam  has  been  successfully 
completed  and  has  unwatered  about  eleven  acres  of 
the  river  bed,  where  a  gathering  dam  and  the  power 
house  are  being  constructed  as  indicated  on  the  plan. 

The  gathering  dam  will  be  of  concrete,  capped  with 
cut  granite.  It  will  extend  into  the  river  for  about 
750  feet  at  an  angle  of  about  60°  from  the  line  of  the 
power  house.  The  height  will  vary  from  10  to  23. 
feet.  This  dam  is  intended  to  divert  toward  the  power 
house  an  amount  of  the  river's  flow  sufficient  for  the 
development  of  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  plant  to  be 
installed.  Incidentally,  within  this  dam  the  level  of 
the  water  will  be  raised  about  eighteen  feet  above  its- 
former  natural  level,  thus  increasing  the  effective  head 
at  the  wheels.  At  the  power  house  end  of  the  dam 
will  be  a  spillway  of  large  capacity,  and  over  this  such 
an  immense  flow  of  water  will  take  place  that  it  is  ex- 
pected that  the  ice  and  other  debris  deflected  by  the 
arched  wall,  further  described  below,  will  be  carried 
away  and  discharged  into  the  river  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  dam. 

The  power  station  will  be  located  practically  on  the 
original  shore  line  and  parallel  to  it.  The  length  will' 
be  about  500  feet,  the  width  70  feet,  and*  the  height 
.jo  feet.  The  inside  walls  will  be  of  stone,  and  it  is 
the  intention  of  the  company  to  construct  such  a  build- 
ing a<  will  harmonize  with  its  surroundings.  The  Park 


174  The    Niagara    Falls 

Commissioners  have  approved  of  the  plans  submitted, 
which  show  a  building  whose  style  of  architecture  on 
the  outside  is  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  front 
elevation  will  show  a  centre  bay  containing  the  main 
entrance  and  two  end  bays.  Between  the  centre  and  end 
bays  will  be  a  colonnade  with  a  loggia.  Along  the 
loggia  will  be  large  windows,  through  which  it  will  be 
possible  for  the  public  at  large  to  view  the  generator 
room.  Suitable  entablature,  balustrading,  etc.,  will  be 
employed  to  obtain  harmony  in  the  design.  The  other 


Main  Coffer  Dam 
The  Electrical  Development  Company  of  Ontario,  Limited 

sides  of  the  building  will  be  comparatively  plain.  In 
plan  the  building  will  be  composed  of  three  portions; 
the  entrance  with  offices,  board  and  visitors'  rooms 
leading  off  from  it ;  the  main  generator  room ;  and 
the  screen  and  gate  room.  Around  the  generator  room 
there  will  be  a  tiled  brick  dado  about  ten  feet  high. 
Above  this  to  the  roof  light  yellow  brick  will  be  used. 
In  the  front  centre  above  the  main  entrance  and  pro- 
jecting into  the  generator  room  there  will  be  a  gal- 
lery containing  the  switchboard  and  the  indicating  and 


Electrical    Handbook  775 

recording  instruments  for  all  of  the  electrical  apparatus. 
This  gallery  will  be  reached  by  the  elevator.  The 
generator  room  will  contain  eleven  generators,  of 
8,000  kilowatts  capacity  each,  all  in  line  in  the 
centre  of  the  room.  They  will  be  of  the  vertical 
inside  revolving  field  type,  with  twelve  poles,  250  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  delivering  a  three-phase  alter- 
nating current  of  twenty-five  cycles  at  twelve  thousand 
volts.  The  weight  of  each  generator  will  be  about 
400,000  pounds  and  that  of  the  revolving  part  about 
141,000  pounds.  The  side  of  the  power  house  toward 
the  river  will  be  carried  on  a  wall  in  which,  below  the 
water  level,  will  be  arched  openings.  Through  these 
openings  the  water  will  pass  to  the  screens,  gates  and 
penstocks,  but  the  outside  face  of  the  wall  will  divert 
ice  and  other  floating  substances  to  the  spillway  at  the 
end  of  the  gathering  dam  as  already  described.  There 
will  also  be  a  spillway  at  the  down-stream  end  of  the 
screen  room  over  which  the  debris  gathered  by  the 
screens  will  be  discharged  into  the  river.  The  gates 
will  be  operated  by  electric  motors.  Below  the  gen- 
erating room  will  be  the  wheelpit,  about  416  feet  long, 
22  feet  wide,  and  158  feet  deep.  The  pit  will  be 
lined  with  masonry  and  will  have  several  floors  or 
stories.  At  various  points  will  be  store  and  pump 
rooms,  etc.  The  penstocks  leading  from  the  gate  and 
screen  rooms  to  the  wheels,  which  will  be  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pit.  will  be  steel  tubes  ten  feet  six  inches 
in  diameter.  The  wheels  will  discharge  the  water 
through  draft  tubes  into  the  side  discharge  tunnels 
to  be  described  below.  They  will  have  two  runners — 
right  and  left — and  will  be  connected  to  the  generators 
on  the  main  generating  floor  by  means  of  hollow  steel 
shafting  about  115  feet  in  length  with  solid  couplings. 
The  moving  parts  of  the  generators  and  wheels  will 
be  carried  under  normal  conditions  upon  the  oil  thrust 
bearings.  An  adjustable  floating  piston  will  carry  each 
wheel  shaft,  if  for  any  reason  the  oil  thrust  bearing 
does  not  work.  The  pressure  upon  the  piston  will  be 
applied  automatically.  Each  unit  will  be  provided  with 


176 


T  h  c    N  i  a  ?  a  r  a    F  a  I }  s 


its  own  independent  oil  pump  for  the  oil  supply.  Suit- 
able air  compressors  will  be  provided  for  cleaning  the 
generators  and  other  uses  about  the  plant. 

Besides    the   above    described    equipment    the    power 
station   will   contain   two    125-volt   exciters   of  30O-kilo- 


\VheeI  Pit,  June  7th,  1904 
The  Electrical  Development  Company  of  Ontario,  Limited 

watts  capacity  driven  by  water  wheels,  and  three  ex- 
citers driven  by  induction  motors ;  the  necessary  cables, 
bus-bars  and  switches  for  properly  controlling  the  gen- 
erators and  distributing  the  electric  current;  the  gov- 
ernors for  the  water  wheels ;  a  machine  shop  for  general 


Electrical    Handbook  if? 

repairs  and  all  the  equipment  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  plant. 

The  discharge  water  from  the  draft  tubes  will  be 
carried  away  by  two  discharge  tunnels — one  on  each 
side  of  the  wheelpit.  The  draft  tubes  will  enter  these 
tunnels  at  the  bottom,  thus  forming  a  water  seal.  Six 
of  the  large  wheels  will  thus  discharge  into  one  tunnel 
and  five  into  the  other.  At  a  point  about  165  feet  from 
the  wheelpit  these  two  tunnels  will  come  together  and 
form  the  main  discharge  tunnel  which  will  convey  the 
water  to  the  base  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls,  at  a  point 
about  midway  between  the  Canadian  and  American 
banks.  The  form  of  the  tunnels  is  generally  described 
as  horseshoe.  The  main  tunnel  has  an  extreme  width 
of  about  twenty-four  feet  and  a  height  of  about  twenty- 
six  feet.  The  velocity  of  the  water  in  the  main  tun- 
nel under  maximum  load  will  be  about  twenty-six  feet 
per  second. 

Before  work  in  the  main  tunnel  was  begun  some 
preliminary  work  was  necessary  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
struction drift,  shown  on  the  plan.  This  drift  started 
from  a  shaft  which  was  sunk  on  the  river  bank  oppo- 
site the  crest  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  and  had  for  its 
objective  point  the  lower  end  of  the  main  tunnel.  Until 
the  face  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls  was  almost  reached 
and  only  about  fifteen  feet  of  wall  remained,  no 
difficulties  of  exceptional  character  were  encountered, 
and  the  tunnel  had  been  relatively  dry.  A  fissure  in 
the  rock  here  allowed  so  much  water  to  enter 
that  it  was  impossible  to  keep  the  tunnel  dry  enough  for 
working.  After  fighting  the  water  with  varying  suc- 
cess it  was  decided  to  explode  a  large  quantity  of  dyna- 
mite close  to  the  wall  between  the  tunnel  and  the  face 
of  the  Falls.  Besides  this,  the  eighteen  holes  which 
had  with  difficulty  been  drilled  in  the  wall  were  filled 
with  dynamite  and  all  were  exploded  together,  after 
the  drift  had  been  allowed  to  flood.  The  explosion 
caused  an  opening  into  the  face  of  the  cliff,  but,  unfor- 
tunately, so  near  the  roof  of  the  tunnel  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  work  at  the  opposing  wall  from  the  inside. 


i/8  The    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Falls 

At  this  point  the  resident  engineer  undertook  heroic 
measures  and  called  for  volunteers  to  crawl  along  the 
ledge  on  the  face  of  the  cliff  behind  the  Falls  to  the 
opening  which  had  been  made.  Two  volunteers  made 
the  first  trip,  and  finally  with  great  difficulty,  large 
quantities  of  dynamite  were  placed  against  the  wall 
at  the  end  of  the  tunnel,  and  it  was  blown  away  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  the  water  to  run  out  of  the  tunnel.  In 
the  main  tunnel,  which  is  now  nearly  completed,  there 
is  no  infiltration  whatever. 


Main  Tail  Race  Tunnel  Above  Spring  Line 
The  Electrical  Development  Company  of  Ontario,  Limited 

The  Toronto  and  Niagara  Power  Company  will  re- 
ceive at  its  step-up  terminal  station  through  under- 
ground conductors  the  electric  power  generated  by  the 
Electrical  Development  Company.  The  terminal  sta- 
tion will  be  located  on  the  top  of  the  Niagara  embank- 
ment about  fifteen  hundred  feet  from  the  generating  sta- 
tion, near  the  tracks  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railway, 
and  sufficiently  far  from  the  river  to  be  free  from 
the  dangerous  deposit  of  ice  formed  by  the  spray  from 
the  Falls.  This  terminal  station  will  be  about  200  feet 


Electrical    Handbook  179 

long  and  65  feet  wide.  The  current  will  be  delivered 
from  the  generating  station  at  approximately  12,000 
volts.  The  transformers  are  so  designed  that  current 
may  be  distributed  from  them  at  forty,  fifty  or  sixty 
thousand  volts.  Leading  from  the  terminal  station  will 
be  local  circuits  at  12,000  volts  and  other  circuits  at 
higher  voltages  depending  upon  the  length  of  the 
transmission  line  and  the  quantity  of  power  to  be  trans- 
mitted. 

For  the  transmission  line  a   right  of  way   has  been 


ical  Development  Company  of  Ontario,  Limited 

either  purchased  or  arranged  for,  from  the  terminal  sta- 
tion at  Niagara  Falls  to  the  terminal  station  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  city  of  Toronto.  It  has  an 
average  width  of  over  eighty  feet.  At  the  crossing  of 
the  Welland  Canal,  towers,  carrying  the  conductors, 
will  be  erected  of  such  a  height  as  to  allow  passage  of 
ships  below  the  conductors.  At  Burlington  Beach,  the 
canal  connecting  Lake  Ontario  with  Burlington  Bay  will 
be  crossed,  and  high  towers  will  also  be  used  at  this 
point.  Generally  speaking,  and  with  the  exception  of 
the  rise  to  the  Niagara  plateau  near  Gritnsby,  and  the 


iSo 

ravines  in  the  township  of  Pelham,  the  right  of  way 
passes  through  practically  a  level  country,  and  will  pre- 
sent few  difficulties  for  construction. 

The  transmission  lines  to  Toronto  will  consist  of 
four  three-phase  circuits  to  be  operated  at  60,000  volts. 
These  four  circuits  will  be  carried  on  two  lines  of  steel 
towers,  each  line  carrying  two  circuits.  The  towers  will 
be  constructed  of  galvanized  steel  angles  bolted  together. 
They  will  be  46  feet  high,  having  a  base  14  feet  by  12 
feet.  Lengthwise  of  the  line  the  towers  will  have  a 
uniform  width  of  14  feet,  top  and  bottom,  while  cross- 
wise of  the  line  the  base  will  be  12  feet,  the  two  sides 
coming  together  at  the  top  of  the  tower.  Cross  bracing 
after  the  general  design  of  wind-mill  towers  will  be 
used.  At  the  top  will  be  a  cross  arm  in  the  form  of  a 
steel  pipe  on  which  will  be  placed  four  steel  pins  carry- 
ing insulators.  The  fifth  and  sixth  pins  will  be  sup- 
ported on  vertical  steel  pipes  which  will  be  supported 
at  the  point  where  the  sides  of  the  tower  come  together. 
The  towers  are  so  designed  that  they  will  withstand 
with  safety  a  side  strain  of  io,oco  pounds  applied  at  their 
tops.  They  will  be  erected  at  intervals  of  about  400 
feet  on  the  straight  line.  At  curves  a  less  spacing  will 
be  used  so  that  the  strain  upon  the  tower  will  be  within 
safe  limits.  At  points  where  ravines  are  crossed  or 
abnormal  conditions  exist,  special  towers  will  be  pro- 
vided. 

Porcelain,  brown,  glazed  insulators,  having  three  or 
four  parts  according  to  the  manufacturer,  will  be  used. 
Their  approximate  dimensions  will  be,  diameter  of 
top  of  umbrella,  14  inches;  height  over  all.  14  inches. 
The  parts  making  up  the  insulator  will  be  cemented 
together,  and  the  insulator  itself  will  be  cemented  to  the 
steel  pin. 

The  conductors  will  be.  carried  upon  the  insulators 
which  will  be  so  placed  upon  the  tower  that  the  con- 
ductors will  be  located  at  the  points  of  intersection  of 
the  sides  of  an  equilateral  triangle  having  a  horizontal 
base  of  six  feet.  The  conductor  will  be  composed  of 
six  strands  of  hard  drawn  copper  wire  forming  a  cable, 


Electrical    Handbook 


181 


the  combined  area  of  the  strands  being  190,000  circular 
mils.  This  wire  is  being  specially  drawn  with  a  view 
of  obtaining  a  high  conductivity  and  at  the  same  time 
a  high  tensile  strength  and  elastic  limit.  The  results 
of  tests  upon  samples  of  the  wire  have  been  very  satis- 
factory, and  show  that  an  elastic  limit  exceeding  35,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  can  be  obtained  with  an  ulti- 
mate tensile  strength  of  over  55,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  In  fixing  the  spacing  of  towers,  and  the  sag  to 
be  allowed,  maximum  conditions  of  wind  combined  with 


t  Company  of  Ontario,  Limited 


sleet  and  a  low  temperature  have  been  provided  for. 
The  conductor,  which  will  be  supplied  by  the  manu- 
facturer in  lengths  of  3,000  feet,  will  be  joined  by 
twisted  copper  sleeves  unsoldered.  Copper  tie  wires 
will  be  used. 

At  various  points  in  each  circuit  will  be  placed  light- 
ning arresters  of  ample  capacity,  each  lightning  arrester 
having  a  knife  switch  for  disconnecting  it  from  the 
transmission  line. 

The   step-down   terminal    station   will   be   located    at 


182  T  1 1  c    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    F  a  1 1  s 

the  Toronto  end  of  the  right  of  way  just  outside  of 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  city  of  Toronto.  This 
station  will  be  similar  in  design  to  the  step-up  terminal 
station.  From  this  station  will  be  laid  conductors  in- 
stalled in  underground  conduits  connecting  with  the  sub- 
stations of  the  Toronto  Electric  Light  Company,  and  the 
Toronto  Railway  Company. 


184  'I*  h  c    Niagara    Palls 


The  Ontario  Power  Company  of 
Niagara  Falls 

GENERAL  PLAN 

NIAGARA  River  descends  more  than  200-  feet 
between  the  upper  line  of  breakers  opposite 
DufTerin  Islands  and  the  foot  of  Horseshoe 
Falls.  To  utilize  this  head  of  water,  the 
Ontario  Power  Company  has  laid  a  pipe  from  an 
intake  at  these  islands  for  more  than  a  mile  down 
stream  along  the  Canadian  bank  of  the  river,  and 
then  dropped  it  to  an  electric  generating  station 
at  the  water  level  in  Niagara  canon  opposite  Goat 
Island.  With  the  intake  of  the  pipe  line  above  the 
upper  rapids,  and  the  power,  house  in  the  canon 
below  the  falls,  nearly  55  feet  are  added  to  the  head 
of  water  available  from  the  cataract  alone.  This 
pipe  line  also  passes  the  series  of  cascades  that  ex- 
tends three-fourths  mile  up-stream  from  the  falls, 
and  reaches  smooth  water  for  the  forebay,  so  that 
frazil  ice  will  be  avoided.  Located  in  the  canon 
near  the  river  level,  the  power  house  will  require 
neither  vertical  generators  at  the  tops  of  towering 
shafts,  nor  a  long  tunnel  to  carry  off  the  tail  water. 

Electrical  energy  developed  near  the  base  of  the 
cataract  passes  up  through  cables  and  conduits  in 
the  cliff  to  a  transformer  house  above  for  distribution 
and  transmission.  Queen  Victoria  Park  is  the  site 
of  this  hydro-electric  system  from  intake  to  power 
house,  but  the  transformer  station  is  located  on  the 
land  of  the  company. 

The  distinct  features  of  this  power  development 
include  the  following: 

A   large,  deep  forebay  with  a  smooth  water  sur- 


186  T  h  c    .V  ia«ara    Pall  s 


.n  ! 


Electrical    Handbook  187 

face,  and  a  series  of  ice  screens  swept  clear  by  cross 
currents. 

Forebay  and  penstocks  connected  by  a  line  of  the 
largest  steel  water  pipe  in  the  world. 

Not  less  than  175  feet  of  effective  head  on  tur- 
bine water  wheels. 

Horizontal  turbines  and  electric  generators  direct 
coupled  at  the  bottom  of  the  canon. 

The  discharge  of  tail  water  from  the  draft  tubes 
directly  into  the  river. 

All  main  switching  and  controlling  apparatus  lo- 
cated in  a  distant  transformer  station  instead  of  at 
the  power  house. 

Isolation  of  each  unit  of  electrical  apparatus  con- 
sisting of  a  generator,  its  transformers  and  all  inter- 
mediate connections. 

CAPACITY  OF  THE  WORKS 

Plans  now  under  way  provide  for  the  diversion 
of  not  less  than  11,700  cubic  feet  of  water  per  sec- 
ond from  the  Niagara  River  at  the  Dufferin  Islands,, 
the  transmission  of  this  water  to  the  power  house 
through  steel  pipes,  and  for  the  development  there- 
from of  135,000  kilowatts  or  180,000  electrical  horse- 
power by  eighteen  generating  vmits. 

The  immediate  development,  now  well  advanced 
toward  completion,  includes  the  entire  intake  works,, 
one  of  the  three  steel  pipes  from  the  intake  to  the 
cliff  above  the  power  house,  penstocks  from  this 
pipe  to  six  pairs  of  main  turbine  water-wheels,  and  six 
io,ooo-h.p.  generators  with  exciters,  transformers  and 
accessories.  One-third  of  the  complete  power  house,, 
and  one-third  of  the  transformer  station,  will  be 
built  at  once  to  contain  the  water-wheels,  and  the 
electrical  apparatus  just  named. 

THE  INTAKE 

Dufferin  Islands,  at  the  head  of  which  the  intake 
works  are  located,  mark  a  deep  indenture  in  the 
Canadian  shore  of  the  river  just  where  its  rush 


i88  The    Xiagara    Palls 

toward  the  cataract  begins  to  quicken.  Toward  this 
indenture  the  waters  strongly  set  and  after  passing 
the  intake  and  ice  curtain  they  are  caught  between 
converging  walls  that  extend  down  to  the  screen 
house  and  form  the  sides  of  the  outer  forebay.  On 
passing  through  the  screens  from  the  outer  to  the 
inner  forebay,  the  water  changes  its  direction  of  flow 
by  almost  a  right  angle,  and  completes  a  reverse 
quadrant  between  the  screen  house  and  the  gate 
house. 

More  than  double  the  volume  of  water  that  can 
be  drawn  from  the  forebay  by  the  steel  pipes  is  inter- 
cepted by  the  up-stream  face  of  the  intake,  and  much 
is  there  deflected  to  form  a  cross  current  and  carry 
away  ice.  This  deflection  is  brought  about  by  the 
intake  construction,  which  consists  of  concrete  piers 
and  curtain  wall,  the  latter  reinforced  with  steel. 
These  piers  and  the  solid  curtain  that  connects  them, 
rise  to  elevation  560,  or  5  feet  above  the  water  level. 
The  curtain  drops  12  feet  between  the  piers  to  within 
6  feet  of  the  river  bed,  and  /  feet  below  the  normal 
level  of  the  river.  In  this  way  a  strung  current 
across  the  face  of  the  curtain  wall  is  set  up  and  will 
carry  floating  ice  with  it. 

Like  the  walls  of  the  outer  forebay,  those  of  the 
inner  one  constantly  converge.  The  intake  and  ice 
diverting  curtain  make  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees 
with  the  centre  line  of  the  forebay  and  is  618  feet 
long.  On  a  line  at  right  angles  to  this  centre  line 
and  at  the  up-stream  end  of  its  river  wall  the  width 
of  the  forebay  is  420  feet.  Where  the  turn  to  the 
screen  house  begins,  the  side  walls  of  the  forebay 
are  295  feet  apart,  and  this  house  connects  the  two 
walls  with  its  length  of  320  feet.  The  gate  house 
closes  the  down-stream  ends  of  the  forebay  walls 
and  is  120  feet  in  length. 

At  the  intake  and  ice  screen  the  normal  depth  of 
water  is  13  feet  and  its  velocity  about  3  feet  per  sec- 
ond. Across  the  line  of  greatest  forebay  width  at 
420  feet  the  current  is  4.7  feet  per  second  and  this 


Electrical    Handbook  189 


igo  The    X  i  a  g  a  r  a    Fall  s 

velocity  is  maintained  down  to  the  line  of  295  feet 
width  where  the  depth  of  water  is  12  feet.  Between 
this  last  named  line  and  the  screen  house  the  depth 
of  water  increases  to  20  feet  and  its  velocity  drops 
to  2  feet  per  second.  After  passing  the  screen  house 
the  floor  of  the  forebay  continues  to  drop  until  a 
depth  of  30  feet  is  reached  at  the  gate  house,  where 
the  velocity  is  3.4  feet  per  second. 

In  the  outer  forebay,  bounded  by  the  river  wall, 
the  islands,  the  intake  and  the  screen  house,  the  area 
is  8  acres. 

The  inner  forebay  extends  between  side  walls 
from  the  screen  house  to  the  gate  house  and  has  an 
area  of  2  acres.  All  of  this  forebay  area  of  10  acres 
lies  in  the  normal  bed  of  the  river  just  outside  of  the 
Dufferin  Islands,  and  leaves  their  former  area  un- 
diminished,  while  several  entirely  new  islands  of  con- 
siderable area  have  been  added.  Besides  the  line 
of  intake  piers  and  ice  curtain.  618  feet  in  length, 
which  extends  diagonally  out  from  the  bank  above 
the  islands,  the  larger  or  outer  forebay  is  separated 
from  the  river  by  a  confining  wall  some  780  feet  long, 
which  describes  a  curve  from  the  outer  end  of  the 
intake  down  to  the  screen  house. 

On  the  river  side  the  screen  house  and  the  gate 
house  are  connected  by  an  artificial  island  and  a  re- 
taining wall.  The  confining  wall  along  the  river  side 
of  the  entire  forebay  sets  a  little  inside  of  the  high- 
est line  of  cascades  and  is  sunk  one  to;  five  feet  below 
the  outside  bed  rock  of  the  river.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain the  required  depth  of  water  in  the  forebay  a 
large  amount  of  limestone  bottom  which  forms  the 
river  bed  at  that  point  had  to  be  excavated.  This 
removal  of  rock  from  the  bed  of  the  river  left  a 
natural  limestone  wall  along  the  bank  and  island 
side  of  the  smaller  or  inner  forebay.  and  this  natural 
wall  was  supplemented  with  concrete. 

Intake  piers  that  support  the  ice  curtain,  as  well 
as  the  river  wall  of  the  entire  forebay,  the  founda- 
tions of  the  gate  house,  and  the  head  block  were  also 


Electrical    Handbook  191 

laid  with  concrete.  The  retaining  walls  were  laid 
in  sections  with  dove-tail  joints,  and  their  cores  were 
made  up  in  large  part  of  irregular  blocks  of  lime- 
stone spaced  with  at  least  several  inches  of  concrete 
between.  For  all  this  work  the  regular  concrete 
mixture  was  one  part  of  Portland  cement,  three  parts 
of  sand  and  five  parts  of  crushed  stone  from  the  river 
bed. 

At  the  intake  and  along  down  the  forebay  to  the 
gate  house  the  low  water  elevation  was  taken  as 
553  feet  above  tide  water.  The  top  of  the  retaining 
wall  on  the  river  side  of  the  forebay  from  the  intake 
piers  to  within  100  feet  of  the  screen  house  has  an 
elevation  of  553  feet,  or  just  the  low  water  level  of 
the  river.  At  a  point  TOO  feet  up-stream  from  the 
screen  house  the  top  of  the  wall  on  the  river  side 
of  the  forebay  drops  to  an  elevation  of  551  feet  and 
runs  at  this  height  for  a  length  of  50  feet,  then  drops 
to  a  549  foot  level  and  maintains  that  height  down 
to  the  screen  house. 

When  water  at  the  intake  is  at  extreme  low  level, 
there  is  thus  a  discharge  of  approximately  50  x  4  or 
200  square  feet  cross  section  over  the  50  foot  spill- 
way next  to  the  screen  house,  and  a  discharge  of 
50  x  2  or  100  square  feet  cross  section  over  the 
5o-foot  spillway  next  up-stream.  These  spillways 
consequently  will  create  a  strong  surface  current  right 
across  the  front  of  the  screens,  and  this  tends  to 
sweep  all  ice  that  may  have  passed  the  ice  curtain 
at  the  intake  out  into  the  river.  With  high  water 
the  entire  river  wall  of  the  forebay  as  far  down  as 
the  screen  house  acts  as  a  spillway.  This  interferes 
in  no  wise  with  the  regular  action  of  the  deeper 
weir  section,  in  reality  supplementing  it  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the  wall. 

The  screen  house  foundations  and  screens  rise  to 
an  elevation  of  560  feet,  or  7  feet  higher  than  low 
water,  and  25  feet  above  the  floor  of  the  forebay  at 
this  point.  Both  walls  of  the  inner  forebay  stand 
at  this  elevation  of  560  feet,  from  the  screen  house 


Electrical   Handbook  193 

down  to  the  gate  house,  where  the  floor  level  of  the 
forebay  is  525  feet.  Just  in  front  of  the  gate  house 
at  the  river  end  there  is  an  ice  run  5  feet  wide,  3 
feet  high,  and  with  its  sill  at  an  elevation  of  550  feet 
in  the  forebay  wall.  This  provides  a  further  means 
of  discharging  ice  and  floating  debris  at  this  point. 

Across  the  floor  of  the  outer  forebay,  just  in 
front  of  the  rack  in  the  screen  house,  there  is  a 
trench  two  feet  wide  and  four  feet  deep  to  catch  sand 
and  gravel  that  may  be  moving  along  the  floor  of 
the  forebay.  This  trench  connects  with  the  river 
through  an  arched  opening  in  the  forebay  wall,  and 
is  swept  clean  when  required  by  a  strong  discharge 
current. 

At  the  gate  house  as  well  as  at  the  screen  house 
there  is  an  ice  screen,  and  it  is  expected  that  these 
two  will  clear  the  water  of  all  floating  object?  that 
pass  the  solid  curtain  at  the  intake.  An  artistic 
stone  structure  with  steel  trusses  covers  the  entire 
length  of  the  screens,  and  its  roof  forms  a  broad 
promenade  commanding  an  exceptionally  fine  view 
of  the  rapids.  The  gate  house  is  also  of  stone,  and 
of  artistic  design.  Entry  to  each  main  pipe  at  the 
gate  house  is  closed  by  a  steel  gate  18  feet  square, 
of  the  "Stoney"  type,  which  rests  on  a  steel  sill  when 
down.  This  gate  is  counterbalanced  and  runs  be- 
tween roller  guides  so  that  the  work  of  operation 
is  done  by  a  motor  of  only  5  h.p. 

THE  PIPE  LINES 

Starting  from  the  gate  house  three  steel  pipes 
will  follow  the  river  bank  through  the  Queen  Victoria 
Park  to  the  top  of  the  cliff  above  the  power  house 
and  there  connect  with  eight  penstocks  each.  From 
head  gates  to  the  nearest  penstock  the  length  of  each 
of  the  pipes  is  6,180  feet,  and  the  most  distant  pen- 
stock is  nearly  1,000  feet  farther  down  stream. 

Each  of  the  main  pipes  has  an  inside  diameter  of 
18  feet,  the  largest  used  anywhere  to  convey  water, 
and  connects  with  six  penstocks  of  9  feet  diameter, 


i(?4  The    Niagara    Fall  s 

and  two  of  30  inches  diameter,  at  the  top  of  the 
cliff.  At  the  gate  house  the  centre  elevation  of 
each  i8-foot  pipe  will  be  534  feet,  or  19  feet  below  the 
low  water  level  in  the  forebay,  and  the  centre  eleva- 
tion of  the  same  pipes  at  that  point  on  the  cliff 
where  the  first  penstock  is  connected  will  be  506  feet, 
showing  a  28-foot  drop  in  the  pipes.  Each  of  these 
i8-foot  pipes  with  its  eight  penstocks  conveys  water 
for  the  development  of  60,000  electrical  horse  power 
besides  that  delivered  by  the  exciters.  For  this 
power  development  each  pipe  will  deliver  about  3,900 


The 


cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  when  its  connected 
generators  are  fully  loaded,  and  the  velocity  of  the 
water  in  the  pipe  will  then  be  nearly  15  feet  per 
second. 

Steel  plates  l/2  inch  thick  and  joined  with  double 
rows  of  one  inch  rivets  are  used  to  form  the  i8-foot 
pipes,  and  these  plates  are  reinforced  by  8-inch  steel 
bulb  tees,  or  deck  beams,  bent  to  the  radius  of  each 
pipe  and  riveted  to  its  upper  half  at  intervals  of  four 
feet  throughout  its  entire  length.  From  head  gates 
to  penstocks  the  pipes  will  lie  in  trenches  excavated 


Electrical    Handbook  19$ 

for  the  purpose  through  the  Park,  and  with  these 
trenches  filled  with  earth  the  support  thus  given  to 
the  lower  halves  of  the  pipes  makes  unnecessary  the 
use  of  circular  beams  to  reinforce  those  parts.  Be- 
fore each  pipe  is  covered  its  outside  surface  is 
cleaned  by  sand  blast  and  painted  to  prevent  rust, 
and  conducting  terminals  are  also  attached  to  it 
at  intervals  of  four  feet.  These  terminals  are  con- 
nected to  a  conductor  for  carrying  off  stray  electric 
current  which  might  otherwise  cause  damage  by 
electrolysis.  The  earth  covering  varies  in  depths 
with  the  surface  of  the  park.  One  of  the  three  pipes 
is  included  in  the  section  of  the  work  now  nearing 
completion. 

Each  i8-foot  pipe  turns  up  into  an  open  relief 
and  spillway  at  its  end  on  the  cliff  where  the  pen- 
stocks are  connected.  These  spills  serve  to  reduce 
fluctuations  of  head  and  pressure  at  both  increase 
and  decrease  of  loads. 

The  spillways  being  open  and  provided  with  over- 
flow pipes  send  any  excess  of  water  to  the  river 
when  the  load  is  suddenly  reduced,  and  thus  prevent 
any  dangerous  rise  of  pressure. 

THE  PENSTOCKS 

Eight  penstocks  will  connect  with  each  i8-foot  pipe 
at  the  top  of  the  cliff,  and  drop  through  shafts  and 
tunnels  in  the  rock  to  the  power  house  in  the  canon 
below.  These  penstocks  are  divided  into  four  pairs, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  shaft  and  tunnel.  Six  of 
the  penstocks,  forming  three  pairs,  have  a  diameter 
of  9  feet  each  and  carry  water  to  the  wheels  of  six 
main  generators.  The  two  smaller  penstocks  are 
each  30  inches  in  diameter,  pass  through  the  same 
tunnel,  and  deliver  water  for  the  wheels  of  two  ex- 
citers. A  chamber  beneath  the  point  where  each 
pair  of  penstocks  joins  the  main  pipe  provides. room 
for  their  valves  and  for  the  electric  motors  by  which 
the  valves  are  operated. 

Each  9-foot  penstock  for  the  turbine   of  a   gen- 


iy6  The    Niagara    Falls 

crating  unit  rises  to  the  wheel  centre  at  elevation 
373  after  passing  through  a  tunnel  of  somewhat 
lower  level,  so  that  the  drop  between  the  centre  of 
the  i8-foot  pipe  and  the  centres  of  the  main  wheels 
is  133  feet.  The  exciter  penstocks  reach  their  wheel 
centres  at  elevation  380.8  or  about  125  feet  below  the 
centre  of  the  main  pipe  on  the  cliff  above. 

THE  TURBINES 

A   twin   turbine   wheel   mounted   on   a   horizontal 
shaft  in  the  power  house  will  be  direct  connected  to 


Interior  of  Pipe 
The  Ontario  Power  Company 

each  7,50O-kw.  generator.  Each  of  these  wheels  has  a 
diameter  of  6.5  feet  at  the  tips  of  the  runners,  and 
operates  at  187^  rev.  per  min.  The  pair  of  wheels 
on  each  shaft  is  mounted  with  the  centres  of  their 
cases  18  feet,  2  inches  apart,  and  between  the  cases 
there  is  a  draft  tube  and  also  a  bearing  for  the  shaft. 
Before  delivering  its  water  to  the  turbine  the  9-foot 
penstock  divides  into  two  branches,  one  for  each 
wheel.  Each  main  penstock  is  also  provided  with 
two  relief  valves  that  discharge  into  the  tail  race 
when  open. 


Electrical    Handbook  197 

The  two  draft  elbows  from  each  pair  of  main  tur- 
bines will  unite  near  the  floor  line  of  the  power  house 
in  a  single  tube  formed  in  the  concrete  foundation. 
This  concrete  draft  tube  has  a  total  length  includ- 
ing its  curved  portion  of  nearly  50  feet.  It  is  circular 
in  cross  section  and  10  feet  in  diameter  near  the 
floor  level,  but  changes  lower  down  to  a  rectangular 
section  of  equal  area.  Each  concrete  draft  tube  will 
terminate  in  a  tail  race  beneath  the  foundations  of 
the  power  house,  and  this  tail  race  will  be  provided 
with  a  wall  of  overfall  section  on  its  river  side.  The 
top  of  this  wall  is  at  elevation  349.5,  or  7  feet  above 
the  mean  water  level  of  the  river  outside. 

When  all  the  turbines  are  in  operation  at  full 
load  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  tail  race  will  rise 
to  about  353.2  feet  in  elevation,  so  as  to  give  a  dis- 
charge nearly  3.5  feet  deep  over  the  crest  of  the 
waste  wall. 

Electric  exciters  and  their  direct  connected  tur- 
bines will  be  located  on  a  raised  gallery  on  the  side  of 
the  station  farthest  from  the  river,  and  the  oil  actu- 
ated governors  controlling  the  speed  of  all  turbines 
will  be  also  mounted  upon  this  gallery.  This  loca- 
tion was  selected  to  bring  them  within  easy  reach 
of  the  attendant  stationed  on  this  gallery,  which 
overlooks  the  entire  generating  station.  From  it 
the  operation  of  the  station  will  be  conducted.  Each 
exciter  will  be  of  5oo-h.  p.  capacity  and  will  be  driven 
at  300  rev.  per  min.  by  a  39-inch  impulse  wheel 
mounted  upon  the  exciter  shaft.  The  effective  head 
on  the  exciter  wheel  will  be  the  same  as  that  on  the 
main  turbines.  The  wheels  for  each  exciter  will  pass 
50  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  at  full  load. 

ELECTRIC  GENERATORS 

Three  of  the  eighteen  main  generators  provided  for 
by  the  general  plan  will  make  up  the  first  installation. 
Each  of  these  generators  is  rated  at  7,500  kw.,  or 
10,000  e.h.p.,  and  to  deliver  three-phase  current  of  25 
cycles  per  second  at  12,000  volts  when  operating  at 


ip8  The    Niagara    Falls 

187.5  rev.  per  min.  The  armatures  in  these  generators 
are  stationary  and  the  magnets  rotate  on  horizontal 
shafts.  The  bed  plate  of  each  generator  measures 
26  feet,  7  inches,  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft,  and 
the  length  from  the  centre  of  coupling  to  the  end 
of  shaft  is  20  feet,  2  inches.  For  each  generator  and 
its  pair  of  direct  connected  turbines  the  floor  space 
will  be  about  20  by  49  feet.  The  revolving  part  of 
each  generator  weighs  82.5  tons,  and  the  total  weight 
of  the  machine  is  204.6  tons.  The  revolving  magnet 
has  a  diameter  of  15  feet,  2.5  inches,  and  carries  10 
poles.  In  the  external  armature  the  dividing  line  of 
its  halves  is  the  horizontal  diameter.  The  external 
diameter  of  the  armature  casing  measures  about  21 
feet,  6  inches.  The  shaft  diameter  is  21  inches. 

Two  exciting  dynamos,  of  500  h.p.  capacity  each, 
will  be  provided  for  the  six  main  generators  that  are 
driven  by  the  water  from  one  of  the  i8-foot  pipes. 
Direct  current  at  250  volts  will  be  delivered  by 
these  dynamos,  and  used  for  the  operation  of  lamps, 
motors,  oil  switches,  and  for  charging  storage  bat- 
teries, as  well  as  for  exciting  the  generator  magnets. 
One  of  the  5OO-h.p.  dynamos  will  have  sufficient 
capacity  to  excite  the  magnets  of  six  main  genera- 
tors, with  the  second  dynamo  of  like  capacity  held 
in  reserve.  Two  of  these  exciting  dynamos  direct 
connected  to  their  respective  wheels  are  being  in- 
stalled with  the  first  three  of  the  main  generators. 

SWITCHES   AND   SWITCHING 

Generators  at  the  power  house  in  the  canon  are 
to  be  connected  and  controlled  by  apparatus  in  the 
transforming  and  distributing  station  some  550  feet 
distant  and  255  above  on  the  cliff. 

This  distant  control  removes  from  the  power 
house  the  possible  dangers  incident  to  the  operation 
of  high  voltage  switches  for  generators  as  well  as 
transformers,  and  also  concentrates  the  management 
of  both  in  a  single  operating  room. 

At    the    power    house    will    be    located    25O-volt 


Electrical    Handbook  199 

switches  that  connect  the  exciters  with  generator 
magnets,  motor,  control  and  lighting  circuits,  and 
with  a  storage  battery  that  is  located  in  or  near  the 
distributing  station. 

The  power  house  will  contain  also  time  limit  and 
overload  relays  for  the  main  generators  to  protect 
them  from  overload  by  opening  any  generator 
switch  when  the  load  for  which  the  relay  is  set  is 
exceeded.  Either  or  both  of  the  exciters  may  be 
used  at  any  time  to  supply  current  for  the  purposes 
named,  including  the  excitation  of  magnets  at  any 


Site  of  Power  House 
The  Ontario  Power  Company 

of  the  six  generators  that  are  driven  by  water  from 
the  same  i8-foot  pipe. 

Among  the  important  control  circuits  that  may  be 
operated  from  the  power  house  will  be  those  of  the 
motors  in  the  valve  chambers  under  the  i8-foot  pipe 
which  admit  or  shut  off  water  from  the  g-foot  pen- 
stocks of  the  main  wheels.  Each  of  these  valve 
motors  is  of  the  induction  type  and  is  rated  at  3O-h.p. 

Aside  from  the  necessary  operation  of  the 
switches  already  named  at  the  power  house,  the 
speed,  voltage  and  connections  of  the  main  generators 


200  The    Niagara    Falls 

will  be  controlled  at  the  distributing  station.  To  this 
end  the  distributing  station  will  contain  a  complete 
group  of  indicating  instruments  for  each  generating 
unit  and  is  connected  by  telephone  with  the  power 
house.  In  the  switch  room  at  the  distributing  sta- 
tion the  oil  switches  for  the  I2,ooo-volt  generator 
circuits  will  be  mounted  in  concrete  cells  and  grouped 
separately  for  each  unit.  These  switches  are  to  be 
all  of  the  vertical  plunger  type  and  operated  by  elec- 
tromagnets. 

Three-pole  oil  switches  like  those  used  in  the 
generator  circuits  will  connect  the  primary  coils  of 
transformer  groups  to  the  I2,ooo-volt  bus  bars,  and 
other  three-pole  switches  of  special  design  will  join 
the  secondary  coils  of  transformers  to  the  high- 
tension  bus  bars.  Each  circuit  will  pass  through 
two  of  these  special  switches  before  it  reaches  these 
bus  bars.  As  these  switches  must  break  a  maximum 
current  of  10,000  h.p.  at  transmission  voltage,  they 
will  necessarily  involve  some  novel  construction,  and 
each  is  expected  to  contain  500  gallons  of  oil. 

A  complete  set  of  control  devices  for  the  circuits 
of  each  io,ooo-h.p.  unit  will  be  located  on  a  single, 
isolated  pedestal,  to  prevent  the  possible  communica- 
tion of  trouble  from  the  connections  of  one  unit  to 
those  of  another,  and  this  pedestal  will  carry  a  dia- 
gram on  its  face  representing  the  arrangement  of  all 
the  connections  concerned. 

Just  back  of  each  control  pedestal  there  will  be  an 
instrument  stand  that  will  carry  a  full  set  of  indicat- 
ing instruments.  Each  transmission  circuit  will  also 
be  provided  with  control  pedestals  and  instrument 
stand  like  those  just  named. 

TRANSFORMERS 

Besides  main  and  control  switches  and  connec- 
tions the  distributing  station  will  contain  an  isolated 
group  of  three  single-phase  transformers  for  each 
main  generator.  The  rating  for  each  of  these  trans- 
formers is  2,500  kw.,  or  3.300  h.p.,  a  capacity  greater 


Electrical   Handbook  201 

than  that  of  any  that  have  yet  been  built.  Each 
transformer  will  have  a  weight  of  about  40  tons, 
and  will  contain  70  barrels  of  oil.  To  cool  one  of 
these  transformers,  10  gallons  of  water  will  enter 
and  flow  through  its  case  per  minute.  Pits  formed 
of  concrete  and  connected  with  a  sewer  will  con- 
tain these  transformers  in  groups  of  three,  so  that 
any  trouble  in  one  group  will  not  extend  to  another. 

CABLE  CONNECTIONS 

All  of  the  cables  and  control  wires  for  the  six  main 
generators  and  two  exciters,  driven  by  water  from 
one  of  the  i8-foot  pipes,  will  leave  the  power  house 
by  way  of  the  tunnel  that  also  carries  the  exciter  pen- 
stocks, and  pass  from  its  top  to  the  distributing  sta- 
tion through  a  line  of  clay  conduits  near  the  surface. 
The  length  of  this  tunnel  is  about  280  feet,  and  its 
angle  varies  from  33  to  60  degrees.  Power  cables 
are  carried  by  tile  ducts  imbedded  in  the  concrete 
sides  of  the  tunnels,  and  broken  at  intervals  for  the 
insertion  of  steel  clamps  to  prevent  sliding  of  the 
cables.  These  power  cables  are  to  be  paper-insulated 
lead  covered,  and  protected  with  layers  of  jute  and  stee 
wires. 

The  control  wires  will  be  suspended  from  the  roof 
of  the  tunnel  in  iron  pipes,  and  will  be  also  clamped 
at  frequent  intervals  to  prevent  displacement. 


PART  V 
FROM  NIAGARA  TO    CHICAGO 


From  Niagara  to  Chicago 

THE  Niagara  River  is  crossed  by  way  of  the 
steel    cantilever   bridge    of   the    Michigan    Cen- 
tral   Railroad,    a   structure    possessing    some 
features   of   interest   to    engineers.     From   it 
the   cataract   is   plainly  visible   on  the   left,   and  the 
dark,  angry  waters  of  the  narrow  gorge  for  below 
at  the  right.      At  Falls  View  a  magnificent  panorama 


is  spread  out  before  the  spectator  who  stands  upon 
the  bluff  150  feet  above  the  crest  of  the  falls,  and 
here  the  train  stops  for  five  minutes  to  allow  pas- 
sengers to  enjoy  the  spectacle.  Far  beyond  to  the 
south  is  seen  the  grand  sweep  of  the  rapids  of  the 
upper  river;  directly  in  front  is  the  magnificent 
Horseshoe  Falls,  "The  Heart  of  Niagara,"  and  be- 
yond lies  Goat  Island  and  the  American  Falls,  while 

.       205 


206  The   Niagara    Falls 

to  the  north  is  the  gorge.  In  the  immediate  fore- 
ground is  the  construction  work  of  the  three  Cana- 
dian Power  Companies,  which  are  pushing  rapidly 
toward  completion  the  development  of  375,000  horse- 
power. The  Carmelite  Monastery  on  the  bluff  just 
beyond  Falls  View  is  interesting  on  account  of  the 
electric  heating  plant  installed  by  a  scientific  Brother, 
one  of  the  first  of  the  kind  in  the  country,  and  which 
does  all  the  work  of  the  kitchen  and  laundry  for  the 
entire  establishment. 

At  Welland  a  glimpse  may  be  had  of  the  Welland 
Canal,  a  small  but  most  important  waterway,  giving 
access  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  the  most 
extensive  mid-continental  water  system  in  the  world. 

St.  Thomas  is  midway  between  Niagara  and 
Detroit,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of 
central  Ontario.  London,  with  a  population  of 
38,000  is  but  fifteen  miles  north,  and  Port  Stanley  on 
Lake  Erie  is  close  by.  The  southern  portion  of 
Ontario  is  a  rich  agricultural  country  noted  for  its 
fine  crops  of  grain  and  fruit,  and  for  its  blooded 
stock,  which  is  not  excelled  by  the  most  favored 
region  of  the  States.  At  Windsor  the  Detroit  River 
is  crossed,  the  entire  train  being  taken  upon  one  of 
the  powerful  steel  ferry  boats  of  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral. The  Detroit  River  is  a  busy  waterway,  and 
from  its  beauty  as  well  as  from  its  topographical 
situation  has  been  called  the  Bosphorus  of  America. 
Standing  upon  the  bridge  of  the  transfer  steamer  by 
night,  and  gazing  at  the  moving  lights  on  the  river 
and  the  constellations  upon  the  tall  masts  that  illu- 
mine the  city,  or  by  day  watching  the  thronging 
commerce,  the  lover  of  the  picturesque  will  regret 
the  day  when  the  necessities  of  commerce  demand 
a  more  speedy  passage  of  the  river  by  bridge  or 
tunnel  instead  of  the  more  attractive,  though  brief, 
sail  across  the  straits. 

Detroit  has  a  better  class  of  workingmen's  homes, 
with  a  larger  percentage  owned  by  the  occupants 
than  the  majority  of  American  cities.  Points  of 


Electrical   Handbook  207 

especial  interest  are  the  water  works,  located  in  a 
beautiful  park;  the  fine  Museum  of  Art;  Belle  Isle 
Park,  a  magnificent  island  pleasure  ground;  Lake 
St.  Clair;  Mount  Clemens,  with  its  saline  springs 
and  baths;  and  the  watering  places  of  Grosse  Isle 
and  St.  Clair  Flats  where  Detroiters  take  their  sum- 
mer recreation.  Nearly  700  miles  of  electric  roads 
radiate  from  Detroit. 

Ypsilanti  is  twenty-nine  miles  from  Detroit  and 
is  noted  for  its  saline  wells  and  baths,  and  also  for 
the  gardens  and  greenhouses  which  supply  the  Mich- 
igan Central  Station  grounds  and  dining  cars  with 
plants  and  flowers.  It  is  lighted  by  electricity  and 
has  a  fine  water  system. 

Ann  Arbor,  thirty-seven  miles,  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  cities  in  the  state.  The  University  of 
Michigan,  ranking  fourth  in  point  of  attendance 
among  the  great  institutions  of  learning  in  America, 
is  located  here.  Not  only  are  students  present  from 
every  state  and  territory  in  the  union,  and  every 
province  of  Canada,  but  Japan,  China,  Egypt,  South 
Africa,  England,  Germany,  Russia,  Mexico,  Turkey, 
Hawaii,  Porto  Rico  and  Philippine  Islands  are  rep- 
resented. The  Engineering  laboratory,  several  times 
enlarged,  now  occupies  30,000  feet  of  floor  space  and 
is  very  complete. 

Jackson,  finely  located  on  Grand  River,  one  of 
the  most  important  cities  of  Southern  Michigan,  and 
a  considerable  railway  centre,  is  seventy-five  miles 
from  Detroit.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and 
is  supplied  with  both  illuminating  and  fuel  gas. 
Artesian  water  is  supplied  by  the  Holly  System. 
Grand  Rapids,  ninety-four  miles  from  Jackson,  is 
the  metropolis  of  western  Michigan,  and  is  noted  far 
and  wide  for  its  furniture  and  other  manufacto- 
ries. The  city  has  a  fine  water  power  and  is  well 
provided  with  electric  light  and  transportation  facil- 
ities. Marshall,  Battle  Creek,  Kalamazoo  and  Niles 
are  fine  towns  on  the  main  line. 

Battle  Creek  is  a  thriving  town  with  an  interest- 


208  The    Niagara    Falls 

ing  history.  Its  name  is  often  met  with  in  far  away 
places  on  threshing  machines  and  furniture  and  espe- 
cially upon  breakfast  foods,  of  which  a  hundred 
kinds  are  manufactured  here.  The  Battle  Creek 
Sanitarium  accommodates  800  to  1,000  patients,  and 
maintains  branches  in  the  various  capitals  of  Europe 
as  well  as  in  India,  Australia  and  Japan.  Its  electri- 
cal equipment,  not  only  as  regards  light  and  power, 
but  in  the  various  apparatus  for  Finsen  and  X-ray 
treatment,  electric  light  and  current  baths,  is  inter- 
esting and  complete.  Battle  Creek  has  a  water 
power,  being  situated  at  the  junction  of  Battle  Creek 
and  the  Kalamazoo  river.  At  Buchanan,  a  quiet 
little  town  eighty-six  miles  from  Chicago  on  the  St. 
Joe  river,  is  a  new  electric  installation  which  was 
recently  described  by  an  authority  as  likely  to  be 
one  of  the  most  permanent  and  financially  successful 
water  power  electric  plants  in  the  country. 

Michigan  City,  the  southernmost  port  on  Lake 
Michigan  and  noted  for  its  curious  sand  dunes,  has 
considerable  manufacturing  and  is  well  lighted  by 
electricity. 

Between  New  Buffalo  and  Chicago  (Kensington) 
the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  has  had  in  operation 
for  some  time  a  telegraphing  system,  by  which  a 
single  wire  is  employed  simultaneously  for  telegraph- 
ing and  telephoning. 

Chicago  is  reached  after  a  pleasant  ride  along  the 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  whose  waters  sparkle  in  the 
sun,  with  views  of  Jackson  Park,  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  and  the  Chicago  University  passing  in 
quick  succession  as  the  train  passes  by,  and  almost 
before  one  realizes  that  he  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
great,  bustling  city  of  Chicago,  the  train  rolls  into 
the  Central  station  on  the  Lake  Front. 


O  nr 
<A    } 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

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